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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  97        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  98        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  99        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 100        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 101        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 102        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 103        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 104        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 105        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 108        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 109        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 111        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 112        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 113        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 114        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 115        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 116        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 117        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 118        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 119        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 124        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 126        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 128            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 129        ),
 130        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 132        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 133        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 134        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 135        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 137        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 138        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 139        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 140        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 141        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 142        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 143        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 144        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 145        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 146        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 147        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 148        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 149        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 150        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 151        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 152        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 153        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 154        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 155        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 156    }
 157
 158    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 159    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 160    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 161
 162    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 163    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 164    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 165
 166    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 167    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 168
 169    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 170    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 171
 172    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 173    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 174
 175    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 176    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 177
 178    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 179    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 180
 181    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 182    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 183
 184    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 185    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 186
 187    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 188    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 189
 190    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 191    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 192
 193    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 194    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 195
 196    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 197    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 198
 199    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 200    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 201
 202    # Whether join hints should be generated
 203    JOIN_HINTS = True
 204
 205    # Whether table hints should be generated
 206    TABLE_HINTS = True
 207
 208    # Whether query hints should be generated
 209    QUERY_HINTS = True
 210
 211    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 212    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 213
 214    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 215    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 216
 217    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 218    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 219
 220    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 221    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 222
 223    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 224    RETURNING_END = True
 225
 226    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 227    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 228
 229    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 230    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 231
 232    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 233    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 234
 235    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 236    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 237
 238    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 239    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 240    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 241    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 242
 243    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 244    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 245
 246    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 247    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 248
 249    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 250    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 251
 252    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 253    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 254
 255    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 256    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 257
 258    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 259    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 260
 261    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 262    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 263
 264    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 265    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 266
 267    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 268    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 269
 270    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 271    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 272
 273    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 274    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 275
 276    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 277    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 278
 279    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 280    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 281
 282    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 283    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 284
 285    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 286    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 287
 288    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 289    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 290
 291    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 292    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 293
 294    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 295    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 296
 297    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 298    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 299
 300    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 301    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 302
 303    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 304    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 305
 306    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 307    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 308
 309    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 310    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 311
 312    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 313    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 314
 315    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 316    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 317
 318    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 319    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 320    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 321
 322    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 323    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 324
 325    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 326    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 327
 328    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 329    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 330
 331    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 332    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 333
 334    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 335    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 336
 337    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 338    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 339
 340    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 341    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 342    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 343    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 344
 345    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 346    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 347
 348    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 349    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 350
 351    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 352    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 353
 354    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 355    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 356
 357    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 358    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 359
 360    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 361    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 362
 363    # The HEX function name
 364    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 365
 366    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 367    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 368
 369    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 370    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 371
 372    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 373    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 374
 375    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 376    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 377
 378    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 379    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 380
 381    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 382    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 383
 384    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 385        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 386        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 387        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 388        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 389        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 390        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 391        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 392        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 393        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 394        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 395    }
 396
 397    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 398        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 399        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 400        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 401        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 402        "DAYS": "DAY",
 403        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 404        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 405        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 406        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 407    }
 408
 409    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 410        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 411        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 412        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 413        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 414            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 415            if e.args.get("windows")
 416            else ""
 417        ),
 418        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 419    }
 420
 421    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 422
 423    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 424
 425    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 426    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 427
 428    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 429        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 431        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 435        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 437        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 442        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 444        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 445        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 447        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 448        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 453        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 454        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 455        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 456        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 457        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 459        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 460        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 461        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 462        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 463        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 467        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 468        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 469        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 470        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 471        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 473        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 476        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 479        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 487        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 491        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 493        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 494        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 500        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 501        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 502        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 505        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 506        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 507        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 508        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 509        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 510        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511    }
 512
 513    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 514    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 515
 516    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 517    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 518        exp.Command,
 519        exp.Create,
 520        exp.Delete,
 521        exp.Drop,
 522        exp.From,
 523        exp.Insert,
 524        exp.Join,
 525        exp.Select,
 526        exp.SetOperation,
 527        exp.Update,
 528        exp.Where,
 529        exp.With,
 530    )
 531
 532    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 533    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 534        exp.Binary,
 535        exp.SetOperation,
 536    )
 537
 538    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 539    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 540        exp.Column,
 541        exp.Literal,
 542        exp.Neg,
 543        exp.Paren,
 544    )
 545
 546    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 547        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 548        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 549        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 550        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 551    }
 552
 553    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 554    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 555
 556    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 557
 558    __slots__ = (
 559        "pretty",
 560        "identify",
 561        "normalize",
 562        "pad",
 563        "_indent",
 564        "normalize_functions",
 565        "unsupported_level",
 566        "max_unsupported",
 567        "leading_comma",
 568        "max_text_width",
 569        "comments",
 570        "dialect",
 571        "unsupported_messages",
 572        "_escaped_quote_end",
 573        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 574        "_next_name",
 575    )
 576
 577    def __init__(
 578        self,
 579        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 580        identify: str | bool = False,
 581        normalize: bool = False,
 582        pad: int = 2,
 583        indent: int = 2,
 584        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 585        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 586        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 587        leading_comma: bool = False,
 588        max_text_width: int = 80,
 589        comments: bool = True,
 590        dialect: DialectType = None,
 591    ):
 592        import sqlglot
 593        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 594
 595        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 596        self.identify = identify
 597        self.normalize = normalize
 598        self.pad = pad
 599        self._indent = indent
 600        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 601        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 602        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 603        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 604        self.comments = comments
 605        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 606
 607        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 608        self.normalize_functions = (
 609            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 610        )
 611
 612        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 613        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 614            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 615        )
 616        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 617            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 618        )
 619
 620        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 621
 622    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 623        """
 624        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 625
 626        Args:
 627            expression: The syntax tree.
 628            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 629                it is safer to copy.
 630
 631        Returns:
 632            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 633        """
 634        if copy:
 635            expression = expression.copy()
 636
 637        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 638
 639        self.unsupported_messages = []
 640        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 641
 642        if self.pretty:
 643            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 644
 645        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 646            return sql
 647
 648        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 649            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 650                logger.warning(msg)
 651        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 652            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 653
 654        return sql
 655
 656    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 657        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 658        if (
 659            not expression.parent
 660            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 661            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 662        ):
 663            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 664
 665            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 666
 667        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 668            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 669
 670            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 671
 672        return expression
 673
 674    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 675        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 676            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 677        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 678
 679    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 680        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 681
 682    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 683        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 684
 685    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 686        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 687        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 688        return comment
 689
 690    def maybe_comment(
 691        self,
 692        sql: str,
 693        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 694        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 695        separated: bool = False,
 696    ) -> str:
 697        comments = (
 698            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 699            if self.comments
 700            else None
 701        )
 702
 703        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 704            return sql
 705
 706        comments_sql = " ".join(
 707            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 708        )
 709
 710        if not comments_sql:
 711            return sql
 712
 713        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 714
 715        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 716            return (
 717                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 718                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 719                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 720            )
 721
 722        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 723
 724    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 725        this_sql = (
 726            self.sql(expression)
 727            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 728            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 729        )
 730        if not this_sql:
 731            return "()"
 732
 733        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 734        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 735
 736    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 737        original = self.identify
 738        self.identify = False
 739        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 740        self.identify = original
 741        return result
 742
 743    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 744        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 745            return name.upper()
 746        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 747            return name.lower()
 748        return name
 749
 750    def indent(
 751        self,
 752        sql: str,
 753        level: int = 0,
 754        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 755        skip_first: bool = False,
 756        skip_last: bool = False,
 757    ) -> str:
 758        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 759            return sql
 760
 761        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 762        lines = sql.split("\n")
 763
 764        return "\n".join(
 765            (
 766                line
 767                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 768                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 769            )
 770            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 771        )
 772
 773    def sql(
 774        self,
 775        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 776        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 777        comment: bool = True,
 778    ) -> str:
 779        if not expression:
 780            return ""
 781
 782        if isinstance(expression, str):
 783            return expression
 784
 785        if key:
 786            value = expression.args.get(key)
 787            if value:
 788                return self.sql(value)
 789            return ""
 790
 791        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 792
 793        if callable(transform):
 794            sql = transform(self, expression)
 795        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 796            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 797
 798            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 799                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 800            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 801                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 802            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 803                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 804            else:
 805                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 806        else:
 807            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 808
 809        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 810
 811    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 812        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 813        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 814        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 815
 816    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 817        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 818        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 819        options = expression.args.get("options")
 820        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 821        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 822        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 823        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 824        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 825
 826    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 827        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 828            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 829        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 830        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 831
 832    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 833        return ".".join(
 834            self.sql(part)
 835            for part in (
 836                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 837                expression.args.get("db"),
 838                expression.args.get("table"),
 839                expression.args.get("this"),
 840            )
 841            if part
 842        )
 843
 844    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 845        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 846
 847        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 848            join_mark = ""
 849            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 850
 851        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 852
 853    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 854        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 855        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 856        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 857        return f"{position}{this}"
 858
 859    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 860        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 861        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 862        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 863        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 864        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 865        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 866        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 867        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 868
 869        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 870            kind = ""
 871
 872        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 873
 874    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 876        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 877        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 878
 879    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 881        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 882            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 883        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 884            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 885        else:
 886            persisted = ""
 887        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 888
 889    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 890        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 891
 892    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 893        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 894            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 895        else:
 896            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 897
 898        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 899
 900    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 901        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 902    ) -> str:
 903        this = ""
 904        if expression.this is not None:
 905            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 906            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 907
 908        start = expression.args.get("start")
 909        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 910        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 911        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 912        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 913        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 914        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 915        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 916        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 917        cycle_sql = ""
 918
 919        if cycle is not None:
 920            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 921            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 922
 923        sequence_opts = ""
 924        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 925            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 926            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 927
 928        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 929        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 930
 931        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 932
 933    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 934        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 935    ) -> str:
 936        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 937        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 938        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 939
 940    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 941        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 942    ) -> str:
 943        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 944
 945    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 946        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 947
 948    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 949        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 950
 951    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 952        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 953        if desc is not None:
 954            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 955        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 956
 957    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 958        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 959        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 960        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 961        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 962        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 963        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 964        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 965        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 966
 967    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 968        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 969
 970    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 971        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 972        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 973        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 974
 975        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 976
 977        properties_sql = ""
 978        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 979            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 980        ):
 981            properties_sql = self.sql(
 982                exp.Properties(
 983                    expressions=[
 984                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 985                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 986                    ]
 987                )
 988            )
 989
 990            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 991                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 992            elif not self.pretty:
 993                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 994                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 995
 996        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 997        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 998
 999        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1000        if expression_sql:
1001            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1002
1003            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1004                postalias_props_sql = ""
1005                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1006                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1007                        exp.Properties(
1008                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1009                        ),
1010                        wrapped=False,
1011                    )
1012                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1013                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1014
1015        postindex_props_sql = ""
1016        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1017            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1018                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1019                wrapped=False,
1020                prefix=" ",
1021            )
1022
1023        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1024        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1025        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1026
1027        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1028        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1029
1030        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1031        if clustered is None:
1032            clustered_sql = ""
1033        elif clustered:
1034            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1035        else:
1036            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1037
1038        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1039        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1040            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1041                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1042                sep=" ",
1043                prefix=" ",
1044                wrapped=False,
1045            )
1046
1047        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1048
1049        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1050        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1051            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1052                exp.Properties(
1053                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1054                ),
1055                sep=" ",
1056                prefix=" ",
1057                wrapped=False,
1058            )
1059
1060        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1061        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1062        no_schema_binding = (
1063            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1064        )
1065
1066        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1067        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1068
1069        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1070        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1071
1072    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1073        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1074        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1075        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1076        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1077        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1078        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1079        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1080        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1081        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1082        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1083
1084        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1085        if cache is None:
1086            cache_str = ""
1087        elif cache is True:
1088            cache_str = " CACHE"
1089        else:
1090            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1091
1092        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1093        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1094
1095        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1096
1097    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1098        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1099        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1100        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1101        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1102
1103    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1104        style = expression.args.get("style")
1105        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1106        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1107
1108    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1109        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1110        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1111
1112    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1113        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1114        if with_:
1115            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1116        return sql
1117
1118    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1119        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1120        recursive = (
1121            "RECURSIVE "
1122            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1123            else ""
1124        )
1125
1126        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1127
1128    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1129        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1130
1131        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1132        if materialized is False:
1133            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1134        elif materialized:
1135            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1136
1137        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1138
1139    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1140        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1141        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1142        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1143
1144        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1145            columns = ""
1146            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1147
1148        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1149            alias = self._next_name()
1150
1151        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1152
1153    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1154        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1155        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1156            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1157        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1158
1159    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1160        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1161        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1162            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1163        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1164
1165    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1166        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1167        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1168            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1169        return this
1170
1171    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1172        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1173        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1174
1175        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1176            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1177            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1178        else:
1179            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1180            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1181
1182        if escape:
1183            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1184            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1185        else:
1186            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1187            escape_sql = ""
1188
1189        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1190            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1191
1192        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1193
1194    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1195        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1196        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1197
1198    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1199        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1200        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1201        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1202        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1203
1204    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1205        type_value = expression.this
1206
1207        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1208            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1209        else:
1210            type_sql = (
1211                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1212                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1213                else type_value
1214            )
1215
1216        nested = ""
1217        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1218        values = ""
1219
1220        if interior:
1221            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1222                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1223                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1224                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1225                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1226                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1227            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1228                nested = f" {interior}"
1229            else:
1230                nested = f"({interior})"
1231
1232        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1233        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1234            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1235            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1236        ):
1237            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1238
1239        return type_sql
1240
1241    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1242        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1243        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1244        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1245        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1246
1247    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1248        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1249        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1250        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1251        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1252        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1253        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1254        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1255        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1256        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1257        if self.RETURNING_END:
1258            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1259        else:
1260            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1261        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1262
1263    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1264        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1265        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1266        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1267        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1268        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1269        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1270        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1271        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1272        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1273        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1274        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1275        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1276        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1277
1278    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1279        return self.set_operations(expression)
1280
1281    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1282        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1283
1284    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1285        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1286        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1287        count = expression.args.get("count")
1288        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1289        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1290            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1291        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1292        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1293
1294    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1295        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1296            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1297            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1298            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1299
1300        agg = expression.this
1301        agg_arg = agg.this
1302        cond = expression.expression.this
1303        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1304        return self.sql(agg)
1305
1306    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1307        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1308            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1309            return ""
1310
1311        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1312
1313    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1314        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1315        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1316        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1317        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1318        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1319        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1320        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1321        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1322        if include:
1323            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1324        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1325        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1326        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1327        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1328        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1329        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1330
1331        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1332
1333    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1334        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1335        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1336        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1337        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1338        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1339        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1340        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1341
1342        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1343
1344        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1345        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1346
1347    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1348        text = expression.name
1349        lower = text.lower()
1350        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1351        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1352        if (
1353            expression.quoted
1354            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1355            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1356            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1357        ):
1358            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1359        return text
1360
1361    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1362        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1363        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1364            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1365
1366        return text
1367
1368    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1369        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1370        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1371            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1372        return text
1373
1374    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1375        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1376        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1377        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1378        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1379        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1380
1381    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1382        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1383        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1384
1385    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1386        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1387
1388    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1389        root_properties = []
1390        with_properties = []
1391
1392        for p in expression.expressions:
1393            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1394            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1395                with_properties.append(p)
1396            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1397                root_properties.append(p)
1398
1399        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1400        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1401
1402        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1403            with_props = " " + with_props
1404
1405        return root_props + with_props
1406
1407    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1408        if properties.expressions:
1409            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1410        return ""
1411
1412    def properties(
1413        self,
1414        properties: exp.Properties,
1415        prefix: str = "",
1416        sep: str = ", ",
1417        suffix: str = "",
1418        wrapped: bool = True,
1419    ) -> str:
1420        if properties.expressions:
1421            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1422            if expressions:
1423                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1424                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1425        return ""
1426
1427    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1428        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1429
1430    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1431        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1432        for p in properties.expressions:
1433            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1434            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1435                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1436            else:
1437                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1438
1439        return properties_locs
1440
1441    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1442        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1443            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1444        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1445
1446    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1447        property_cls = expression.__class__
1448        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1449            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1450
1451        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1452        if not property_name:
1453            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1454
1455        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1456
1457    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1458        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1459            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1460            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1461
1462            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1463            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1464                like = f"({like})"
1465
1466            return like
1467
1468        if expression.expressions:
1469            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1470
1471        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1472        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1473
1474    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1475        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1476        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1477        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1478
1479    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1480        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1481        local = expression.args.get("local")
1482        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1483        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1484        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1485        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1486        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1487
1488    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1489        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1490        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1491        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1492
1493    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1494        if expression.args.get("default"):
1495            property = "DEFAULT"
1496        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1497            property = "ON"
1498        else:
1499            property = "OFF"
1500        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1501
1502    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1503        if expression.args.get("no"):
1504            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1505        if expression.args.get("default"):
1506            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1507
1508        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1509        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1510
1511    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1512        default = expression.args.get("default")
1513        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1514        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1515        if default or minimum or maximum:
1516            if default:
1517                prop = "DEFAULT"
1518            elif minimum:
1519                prop = "MINIMUM"
1520            else:
1521                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1522            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1523        units = expression.args.get("units")
1524        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1525        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1526
1527    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1528        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1529        always = expression.args.get("always")
1530        default = expression.args.get("default")
1531        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1532        never = expression.args.get("never")
1533
1534        if autotemp is not None:
1535            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1536        elif always:
1537            prop = "ALWAYS"
1538        elif default:
1539            prop = "DEFAULT"
1540        elif manual:
1541            prop = "MANUAL"
1542        elif never:
1543            prop = "NEVER"
1544        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1545
1546    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1547        no = expression.args.get("no")
1548        no = " NO" if no else ""
1549        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1550        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1551        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1552        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1553        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1554
1555    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1556        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1557            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1558        if expression.this:
1559            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1560            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1561            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1562
1563        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1564        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1565        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1566
1567    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1568        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1569
1570        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1571        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1572            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1573        else:
1574            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1575
1576        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1577
1578    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1579        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1580        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1581        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1582        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1583        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1584        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1585        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1586
1587    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1588        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1589        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1590        statistics_sql = ""
1591        if statistics is not None:
1592            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1593        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1594
1595    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1596        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1597        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1598        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1599        data_consistency = (
1600            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1601        )
1602        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1603        retention_period = (
1604            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1605        )
1606
1607        if this:
1608            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1609        else:
1610            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1611
1612        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1613
1614        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1615
1616    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1617        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1618        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1619
1620        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1621            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1622        else:
1623            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1624
1625        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1626        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1627        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1628        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1629        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1630        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1631        if is_function:
1632            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1633        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1634
1635        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1636        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1637        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1638        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1639        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1640        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1641        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1642        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1643
1644        if self.RETURNING_END:
1645            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1646        else:
1647            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1648
1649        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1650        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1651
1652    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1653        return self.set_operations(expression)
1654
1655    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1656        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1657
1658    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1659        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1660
1661    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1662        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1663        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1664        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1665        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1666        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1667
1668    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1669        return expression.name
1670
1671    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1672        return expression.name
1673
1674    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1675        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1676
1677        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1678        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1679
1680        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1681        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1682        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1683
1684        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1685        if expressions:
1686            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1687            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1688
1689        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1690
1691    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1692        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1693
1694    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1695        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1696        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1697        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1698        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1699        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1700        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1701        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1702        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1703        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1704        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1705        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1706        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1707        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1708
1709    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1710        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1711
1712    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1713        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1714        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1715        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1716        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1717
1718    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1719        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1720        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1721        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1722        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1723
1724    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1725        return ".".join(
1726            self.sql(part)
1727            for part in (
1728                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1729                expression.args.get("db"),
1730                expression.args.get("this"),
1731            )
1732            if part is not None
1733        )
1734
1735    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1736        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1737        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1738        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1739        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1740        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1741        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1742        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1743        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1744        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1745        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1746        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1747        joins = self.indent(
1748            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1749        )
1750        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1751
1752        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1753        if file_format:
1754            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1755            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1756            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1757
1758        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1759        if ordinality:
1760            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1761            alias = ""
1762
1763        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1764        if when:
1765            table = f"{table} {when}"
1766
1767        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1768        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1769
1770        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1771        if rows_from:
1772            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1773
1774        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1775
1776    def tablesample_sql(
1777        self,
1778        expression: exp.TableSample,
1779        sep: str = " AS ",
1780        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1781    ) -> str:
1782        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1783            table = expression.this.copy()
1784            table.set("alias", None)
1785            this = self.sql(table)
1786            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1787        else:
1788            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1789            alias = ""
1790
1791        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1792        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1793        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1794        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1795        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1796        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1797        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1798        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1799        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1800
1801        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1802        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1803            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1804
1805        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1806        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1807            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1808
1809        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1810        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1811            expr = f"({expr})"
1812
1813        return (
1814            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1815        )
1816
1817    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1818        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1819
1820        if expression.this:
1821            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1822            if not expressions:
1823                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1824
1825            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1826            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1827            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1828            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1829            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1830
1831        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1832        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1833        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1834
1835        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1836        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1837            field = f"IN ({field})"
1838
1839        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1840        if include_nulls is not None:
1841            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1842        else:
1843            nulls = ""
1844
1845        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1846        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1847        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1848
1849    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1850        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1851        kind = expression.text("kind")
1852        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1853        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1854
1855    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1856        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1857
1858    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1859        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1860        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1861        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1862        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1863        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1864        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1865        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1866        if self.RETURNING_END:
1867            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1868        else:
1869            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1870        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1871        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1872
1873    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1874        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1875
1876        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1877        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1878            args = self.expressions(expression)
1879            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1880            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1881            values = (
1882                f"({values})"
1883                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1884                else values
1885            )
1886            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1887
1888        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1889        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1890        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1891
1892        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1893
1894        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1895            row = tup.expressions
1896
1897            if i == 0 and column_names:
1898                row = [
1899                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1900                ]
1901
1902            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1903
1904        if self.pretty:
1905            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1906            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1907            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1908            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1909            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1910
1911        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1912        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1913        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1914
1915    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1916        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1917
1918    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1919        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1920        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1921        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1922
1923    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1924        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1925
1926    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1927        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1928        if group_by_all is True:
1929            modifier = " ALL"
1930        elif group_by_all is False:
1931            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1932        else:
1933            modifier = ""
1934
1935        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1936
1937        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1938        grouping_sets = (
1939            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1940        )
1941
1942        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1943        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1944            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1945        else:
1946            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1947            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1948
1949        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1950        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1951            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1952        else:
1953            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1954            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1955
1956        groupings = csv(
1957            grouping_sets,
1958            cube_sql,
1959            rollup_sql,
1960            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1961            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1962        )
1963
1964        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1965            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1966
1967        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1968
1969    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1970        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1971        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1972
1973    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1974        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1975        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1976        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1977        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1978        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1979        return start + connect
1980
1981    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1982        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1983
1984    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1985        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1986            side = None
1987        else:
1988            side = expression.side
1989
1990        op_sql = " ".join(
1991            op
1992            for op in (
1993                expression.method,
1994                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1995                side,
1996                expression.kind,
1997                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1998            )
1999            if op
2000        )
2001        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2002        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2003        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2004        using = expression.args.get("using")
2005
2006        if not on_sql and using:
2007            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2008
2009        this = expression.this
2010        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2011
2012        if on_sql:
2013            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2014            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2015            if using:
2016                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2017            else:
2018                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2019        elif not op_sql:
2020            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2021                return f" {this_sql}"
2022
2023            return f", {this_sql}"
2024
2025        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2026            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2027
2028        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2029
2030    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2031        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2032        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2033        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2034
2035    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2036        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2037
2038        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2039        if cross_apply is True:
2040            op = "INNER JOIN "
2041        elif cross_apply is False:
2042            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2043        else:
2044            op = ""
2045
2046        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2047
2048    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2049        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2050
2051        if expression.args.get("view"):
2052            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2053            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2054            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2055            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2056            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2057            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2058
2059        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2060        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2061        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2062
2063    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2064        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2065
2066        args = [
2067            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2068            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2069            if e
2070        ]
2071
2072        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2073        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2074        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2075        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2076
2077        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2078
2079    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2081        value = expression.expression
2082        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2083        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2084        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2085        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2086
2087    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2088        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2089        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2091        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2092        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2093        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2094        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2095        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2096
2097    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2098        expressions = (
2099            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2100        )
2101        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2102        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2103
2104    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2105        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2106
2107    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2108        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2109            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2110            return ""
2111
2112        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2113        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2114        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2115        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2116
2117        if wait is not None:
2118            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2119                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2120            else:
2121                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2122
2123        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2124
2125    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2126        text = expression.this or ""
2127        if expression.is_string:
2128            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2129        return text
2130
2131    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2132        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2133            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2134            text = "".join(
2135                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2136            )
2137
2138        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2139            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2140        )
2141
2142    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2143        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2144        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2145        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2146        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2147        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2148        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2149        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2150        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2151        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2152        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2153        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2154
2155    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2156        return "NULL"
2157
2158    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2159        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2160
2161    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2162        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2163        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2164        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2165        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2166        interpolated_values = [
2167            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2168            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2169        ]
2170        interpolate = (
2171            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2172        )
2173        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2174
2175    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2176        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2177        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2178        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2179        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2180        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2181        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2182        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2183
2184    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2185        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2186
2187    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2188        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2189
2190    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2191        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2192
2193    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2194        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2195        asc = not desc
2196
2197        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2198        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2199        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2200        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2201        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2202
2203        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2204
2205        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2206        nulls_sort_change = ""
2207        if nulls_first and (
2208            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2209        ):
2210            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2211        elif (
2212            nulls_last
2213            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2214            and not nulls_are_last
2215        ):
2216            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2217
2218        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2219        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2220            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2221            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2222                self.unsupported(
2223                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2224                )
2225                nulls_sort_change = ""
2226            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2227                if expression.this.is_int:
2228                    self.unsupported(
2229                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2230                    )
2231                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2232                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2233                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2234                nulls_sort_change = ""
2235
2236        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2237        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2238
2239        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2240
2241    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2242        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2243        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2244
2245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2246
2247        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2248
2249    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2250        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2251        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2252        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2253        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2254        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2255        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2256        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2257        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2258        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2259        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2260        definition_sqls = [
2261            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2262            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2263        ]
2264        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2265        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2266        body = "".join(
2267            (
2268                partition,
2269                order,
2270                measures,
2271                rows,
2272                after,
2273                pattern,
2274                define,
2275            )
2276        )
2277        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2278        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2279        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2280
2281    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2282        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2283
2284        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2285            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2286        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2287            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2288
2289        return csv(
2290            *sqls,
2291            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2292            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2293            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2294            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2295            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2296            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2297            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2298            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2299            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2300            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2301            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2302            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2303            self.options_modifier(expression),
2304            sep="",
2305        )
2306
2307    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2308        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2309        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2310
2311    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2312        return ""
2313
2314    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2315        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2316    ) -> t.List[str]:
2317        return [
2318            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2319            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2320        ]
2321
2322    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2323        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2324        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2325        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2326
2327    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2328        into = expression.args.get("into")
2329        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2330            into.pop()
2331
2332        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2333        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2334        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2335        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2336
2337        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2338        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2339            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2340            limit.pop()
2341        else:
2342            top = ""
2343
2344        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2345
2346        if kind:
2347            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2348                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2349            else:
2350                if kind == "STRUCT":
2351                    expressions = self.expressions(
2352                        sqls=[
2353                            self.sql(
2354                                exp.Struct(
2355                                    expressions=[
2356                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2357                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2358                                        else e
2359                                        for e in expression.expressions
2360                                    ]
2361                                )
2362                            )
2363                        ]
2364                    )
2365                kind = ""
2366
2367        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2368        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2369        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2370        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2371        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2372            expression,
2373            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2374            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2375            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2376        )
2377
2378        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2379
2380        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2381            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2382                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2383            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2384                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2385            else:
2386                table_kind = ""
2387            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2388
2389        return sql
2390
2391    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2392        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2393        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2394        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2395
2396    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2397        if expression.expressions:
2398            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2399        return ""
2400
2401    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2402        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2403        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2404        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2405        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2406        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2407        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2408        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2409
2410    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2411        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2412        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2413
2414    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2415        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2416        kind = expression.text("kind")
2417        if kind:
2418            kind = f"{kind}."
2419        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2420
2421    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2422        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2423
2424    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2425        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2426        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2427        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2428        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2429        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2430
2431    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2432        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2433        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2434
2435    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2436        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2437            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2438            order = expression.args.get("order")
2439
2440            if limit or order:
2441                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2442
2443                if limit:
2444                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2445                if order:
2446                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2447                return self.sql(select)
2448
2449        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2450        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2451
2452        while stack:
2453            node = stack.pop()
2454
2455            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2456                stack.append(node.expression)
2457                stack.append(
2458                    self.maybe_comment(
2459                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2460                        comments=node.comments,
2461                        separated=True,
2462                    )
2463                )
2464                stack.append(node.this)
2465            else:
2466                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2467
2468        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2469        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2470        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2471
2472    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2473        return self.set_operations(expression)
2474
2475    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2476        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2477        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2478        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2479        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2480
2481    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2482        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2483
2484        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2485        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2486
2487        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2488            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2489                alias.append("columns", offset)
2490
2491        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2492            columns = alias.columns
2493            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2494        else:
2495            alias = self.sql(alias)
2496
2497        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2498        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2499            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2500        else:
2501            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2502                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2503            elif offset:
2504                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2505            else:
2506                suffix = alias
2507
2508        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2509
2510    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2511        return ""
2512
2513    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2514        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2515        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2516
2517    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2518        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2519        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2520        order = expression.args.get("order")
2521        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2522        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2523        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2524        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2525
2526        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2527
2528        first = expression.args.get("first")
2529        if first is None:
2530            first = ""
2531        else:
2532            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2533
2534        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2535            return f"{this} {alias}"
2536
2537        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2538        return f"{this} ({args})"
2539
2540    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2541        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2542        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2543
2544    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2545        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2546        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2547        end = (
2548            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2549            or "CURRENT ROW"
2550        )
2551        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2552
2553    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2554        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2555        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2556        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2557
2558    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2560        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2561        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2562        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2563
2564    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2565        return apply_index_offset(
2566            expression.this,
2567            expression.expressions,
2568            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2569        )
2570
2571    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2572        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2573        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2574        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2575
2576    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2577        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2578
2579    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2580        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2581        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2582            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2583                this = self.wrap(this)
2584            return f"ANY{this}"
2585        return f"ANY {this}"
2586
2587    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2588        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2589
2590    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2591        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2592        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2593
2594        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2595            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2596            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2597
2598        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2599
2600        if default:
2601            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2602
2603        statements.append("END")
2604
2605        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2606            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2607
2608        return " ".join(statements)
2609
2610    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2611        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2612        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2613        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2614
2615    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2616        order = expression.args.get("order")
2617        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2618        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2619
2620    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2621        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2622        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2623        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2624
2625    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2626        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2627
2628        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2629            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2630        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2631            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2632        else:
2633            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2634
2635    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2636        args = expression.expressions
2637        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2638            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2639
2640        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2641            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2642
2643        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2644            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2645
2646        return args
2647
2648    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2649        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2650
2651        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2652        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2653            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2654
2655        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2656
2657    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2658        return self.func(
2659            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2660        )
2661
2662    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2663        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2664        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2665
2666    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2667        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2668        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2669        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2670        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2671        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2672        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2673        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2674        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2675
2676    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2677        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2678        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2679        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2680        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2681
2682    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2683        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2684
2685    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2686        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2687        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2688        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2689
2690    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2691        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2692
2693    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2694        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2695        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2696            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2697
2698        return path
2699
2700    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2701        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2702            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2703            if not callable(transform):
2704                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2705                return ""
2706
2707            return transform(self, expression)
2708
2709        if isinstance(expression, int):
2710            return str(expression)
2711
2712        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2713            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2714            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2715        else:
2716            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2717            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2718
2719        return escaped
2720
2721    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2722        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2723
2724    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2725        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2726        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2727
2728        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2729        if unique_keys is not None:
2730            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2731        else:
2732            unique_keys = ""
2733
2734        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2735        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2736        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2737        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2738
2739        return self.func(
2740            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2741            *expression.expressions,
2742            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2743        )
2744
2745    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2746        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2747
2748    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2749        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2750        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2751        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2752        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2753        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2754        return self.func(
2755            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2756        )
2757
2758    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2761        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2762        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2763        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2764        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2765        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2766        return self.func(
2767            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2768            this,
2769            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2770        )
2771
2772    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2773        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2774        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2775        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2776
2777        if nested_schema:
2778            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2779
2780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2781        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2782        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2783        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2784
2785    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2786        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2787
2788    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2789        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2790        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2791        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2792        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2793        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2794        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2795        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2796        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2797        return self.func(
2798            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2799        )
2800
2801    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2802        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2803        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2804        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2805        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2806        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2807        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2808
2809    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2810        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2811        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2812        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2813        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2814        with_ = (
2815            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2816            if expressions
2817            else ""
2818        )
2819        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2820
2821    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2822        query = expression.args.get("query")
2823        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2824        field = expression.args.get("field")
2825        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2826
2827        if query:
2828            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2829        elif unnest:
2830            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2831        elif field:
2832            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2833        else:
2834            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2835
2836        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2837
2838    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2839        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2840
2841    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2842        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2843        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2844            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2845        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2846
2847        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2848            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2849            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2850
2851        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2852        if this:
2853            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2854            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2855
2856        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2857
2858    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2859        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2860
2861    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2862        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2863        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2864        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2865        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2866        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2867        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2868
2869    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2870        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2871
2872    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2873        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2874        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2875
2876    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2877        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2878        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2879        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2880        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2881
2882    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2883        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2884
2885    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2886        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2887        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2888        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2889
2890    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2891        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2892        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2893
2894        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2895            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2896        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2897            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2898
2899        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2900
2901    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2902        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2903
2904    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2905        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2906        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2907        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2908
2909    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2910        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2911        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2912        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2913
2914    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2915        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2916        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2917        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2918
2919    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2920        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2921
2922    def and_sql(
2923        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2924    ) -> str:
2925        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2926
2927    def or_sql(
2928        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2929    ) -> str:
2930        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2931
2932    def xor_sql(
2933        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2934    ) -> str:
2935        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2936
2937    def connector_sql(
2938        self,
2939        expression: exp.Connector,
2940        op: str,
2941        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2942    ) -> str:
2943        if stack is not None:
2944            if expression.expressions:
2945                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2946            else:
2947                stack.append(expression.right)
2948                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2949                    for comment in expression.comments:
2950                        if comment:
2951                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2952                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2953            return op
2954
2955        stack = [expression]
2956        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2957        ops = set()
2958
2959        while stack:
2960            node = stack.pop()
2961            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2962                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2963            else:
2964                sql = self.sql(node)
2965                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2966                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2967                else:
2968                    sqls.append(sql)
2969
2970        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2971        return sep.join(sqls)
2972
2973    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2974        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2975
2976    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2977        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2978
2979    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2980        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2981
2982    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2983        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2984
2985    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2986        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2987
2988    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2989        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2990
2991    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2992        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2993        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2994        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2995        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2996        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2997        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2998        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2999
3000    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3001        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3002        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3003
3004    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3005        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3006            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3007        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3008
3009    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3010        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3011
3012    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3013        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3014        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3015        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3016        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3017        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3018        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3019
3020    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3021        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3022        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3023        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3024        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3025        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3026        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3027        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3028        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3029        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3030
3031    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3032        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3033        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3034        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3035        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3036
3037        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3038            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3039
3040        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3041
3042    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3043        return "BEGIN"
3044
3045    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3046        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3047        if chain is not None:
3048            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3049
3050        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3051
3052    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3053        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3054        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3055        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3056
3057    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3059
3060        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3061        if dtype:
3062            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3063            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3064            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3065            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3066            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3067
3068        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3069        if default:
3070            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3071
3072        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3073        if comment:
3074            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3075
3076        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3077        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3078
3079        if not drop and not allow_null:
3080            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3081
3082        if allow_null is not None:
3083            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3084            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3085
3086        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3087
3088    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3089        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3090        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3091            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3092        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3093
3094    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3095        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3096        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3097        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3098        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3099        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3100
3101    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3102        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3103            # Remove db from tables
3104            expression = expression.transform(
3105                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3106            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3107        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3108        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3109
3110    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3111        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3112        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3113        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3114        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3115
3116    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3117        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3118        return f"SET {exprs}"
3119
3120    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3121        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3122
3123        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3124            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3125        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3126            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3127        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3128            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3129        else:
3130            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3131
3132        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3133        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3134        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3135        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3136        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3137        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3138        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3139
3140    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3141        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3142            return self.expressions(
3143                expression,
3144                key="actions",
3145                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3146                skip_first=True,
3147            )
3148        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3149
3150    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3151        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3152        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3153        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3154
3155    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3156        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3157
3158    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3159        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3160
3161        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3162            case = exp.case()
3163            for arg in expression.expressions:
3164                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3165            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3166
3167        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3168
3169        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3170        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3171        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3172
3173    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3174        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3175
3176    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3177        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3178
3179    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3180        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3181        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3182        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3183        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3184
3185    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3186        return self.sql(
3187            exp.Cast(
3188                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3189                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3190            )
3191        )
3192
3193    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3194        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3195            return self.func(
3196                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3197            )
3198        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3199
3200    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3201        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3202
3203        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3204            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3205
3206        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3207            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3208                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3209
3210        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3211            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3212                return self.sql(
3213                    exp.cast(
3214                        l / r,
3215                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3216                    )
3217                )
3218
3219        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3220
3221    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3222        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3223
3224    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3225        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3226
3227    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3228        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3229
3230    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3231        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3232
3233    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3234        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3235
3236    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3237        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3238
3239    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3240        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3241
3242    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3244
3245    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3247
3248    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3250
3251    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3253
3254    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3255        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3256            return self.sql(
3257                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3258            )
3259        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3260
3261    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3263
3264    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3266
3267    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3268        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3269
3270    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3271        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3272
3273    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3274        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3275
3276    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3277        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3278
3279    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3280        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3281
3282    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3283        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3284
3285    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3286        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3287
3288    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3289        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3290
3291    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3292        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3293
3294    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3295        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3296
3297    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3298        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3299
3300    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3301        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3302            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3303            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3304
3305        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3306
3307    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3308        this = expression.this
3309        expr = expression.expression
3310
3311        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3312            this, expr = expr, this
3313        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3314            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3315                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3316
3317            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3318
3319        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3320
3321    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3322        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3323        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3324        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3325        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3326        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3327
3328    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3329        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3330        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3331
3332    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3333        args = []
3334
3335        for key in expression.arg_types:
3336            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3337
3338            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3339                for value in arg_value:
3340                    args.append(value)
3341            elif arg_value is not None:
3342                args.append(arg_value)
3343
3344        if self.normalize_functions:
3345            name = expression.sql_name()
3346        else:
3347            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3348
3349        return self.func(name, *args)
3350
3351    def func(
3352        self,
3353        name: str,
3354        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3355        prefix: str = "(",
3356        suffix: str = ")",
3357    ) -> str:
3358        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3359
3360    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3361        arg_sqls = tuple(
3362            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3363        )
3364        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3365            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3366        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3367
3368    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3369        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3370
3371    def format_time(
3372        self,
3373        expression: exp.Expression,
3374        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3375        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3376    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3377        return format_time(
3378            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3379            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3380            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3381        )
3382
3383    def expressions(
3384        self,
3385        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3386        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3387        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3388        flat: bool = False,
3389        indent: bool = True,
3390        skip_first: bool = False,
3391        skip_last: bool = False,
3392        sep: str = ", ",
3393        prefix: str = "",
3394        dynamic: bool = False,
3395        new_line: bool = False,
3396    ) -> str:
3397        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3398
3399        if not expressions:
3400            return ""
3401
3402        if flat:
3403            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3404
3405        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3406        result_sqls = []
3407
3408        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3409            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3410            if not sql:
3411                continue
3412
3413            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3414
3415            if self.pretty:
3416                if self.leading_comma:
3417                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3418                else:
3419                    result_sqls.append(
3420                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3421                    )
3422            else:
3423                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3424
3425        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3426            if new_line:
3427                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3428                result_sqls.append("")
3429            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3430        else:
3431            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3432        return (
3433            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3434            if indent
3435            else result_sql
3436        )
3437
3438    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3439        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3440        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3441        if flat:
3442            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3443        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3444
3445    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3446        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3447        if not property_name:
3448            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3449        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3450
3451    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3452        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3453
3454    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3455        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3456
3457    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3458        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3459        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3460        expressions = (
3461            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3462        )
3463        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3464
3465    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3466        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3467        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3468        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3469
3470    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3471        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3472
3473    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3474        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3475        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3476        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3477        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3478
3479        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3480        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3481            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3482            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3483            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3484            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3485        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3486            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3487                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3488            else:
3489                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3490        else:
3491            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3492        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3493
3494    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3495        table = expression.this
3496        table_alias = ""
3497
3498        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3499        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3500            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3501            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3502
3503        this = self.sql(table)
3504        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3505        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3506        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3507        sep = self.sep()
3508
3509        return self.prepend_ctes(
3510            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3511        )
3512
3513    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3514        if expression.args.get("format"):
3515            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3516
3517        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3518
3519    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3520        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3521            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3522            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3523
3524        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3525        if not fmt:
3526            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3527            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3528
3529        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3530
3531    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3533        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3534        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3535        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3536        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3537
3538    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3539        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3540        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3541        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3542        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3543
3544    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3545        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3546
3547    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3548        return ""
3549
3550    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3551        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3552        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3553        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3554        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3555        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3556
3557    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3558        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3559        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3560
3561        if having:
3562            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3563
3564        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3565
3566    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3567        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3568        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3569        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3570        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3571        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3572        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3573        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3574        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3575        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3576        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3577        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3578        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3579        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3580
3581    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3582        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3583        if key_block_size:
3584            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3585
3586        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3587        if using:
3588            return f"USING {using}"
3589
3590        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3591        if parser:
3592            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3593
3594        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3595        if comment:
3596            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3597
3598        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3599        if visible is not None:
3600            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3601
3602        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3603        if engine_attr:
3604            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3605
3606        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3607        if secondary_engine_attr:
3608            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3609
3610        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3611        return ""
3612
3613    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3614        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3615        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3616
3617    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3618        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3619        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3621        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3622        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3623        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3624        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3625        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3626        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3627        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3628        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3629
3630    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3631        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3632            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3633
3634        case = exp.Case().when(
3635            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3636            expression.args["true"],
3637            copy=False,
3638        )
3639        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3640        if else_cond:
3641            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3642
3643        return self.sql(case)
3644
3645    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3646        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3647        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3648        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3649        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3650        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3651        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3652
3653    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3654        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3655
3656    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3657        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3658
3659    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3660        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3661        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3662        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3663        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3664        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3665        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3666
3667    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3668        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3669        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3670        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3671
3672    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3673        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3674        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3675        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3676
3677    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3678        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3679
3680    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3681        arg = expression.this
3682        if not arg.type:
3683            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3684
3685            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3686
3687        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3688            return self.sql(arg)
3689
3690        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3691        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3692
3693    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3694        this = expression.this
3695        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3696            return self.sql(this)
3697
3698        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3699
3700    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3701        this = expression.this
3702        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3703            return self.sql(this)
3704
3705        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3706
3707    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3708        this = expression.this
3709        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3710
3711        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3712            return self.sql(
3713                exp.cast(
3714                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3715                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3716                )
3717            )
3718
3719        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3720            return self.sql(this)
3721
3722        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3723
3724    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3725        return self.sql(
3726            exp.func(
3727                "DATEDIFF",
3728                expression.this,
3729                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3730                "day",
3731            )
3732        )
3733
3734    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3735        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3736            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3737
3738        unit = expression.text("unit")
3739        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3740            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3741
3742        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3743
3744    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3745        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3746
3747        return self.func(
3748            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3749        )
3750
3751    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3752        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3753            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3754            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3755            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3756            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3757
3758        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3759
3760        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3761        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3762            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3763
3764        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3765
3766    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3767        expression.set(
3768            "expressions",
3769            [
3770                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3771                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3772                else e
3773                for e in expression.expressions
3774            ],
3775        )
3776
3777        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3778
3779    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3780        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3781        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3782
3783        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3784
3785    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3786        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3787        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3788
3789        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3790
3791        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3792        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3793
3794        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3795        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3796
3797        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3798        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3799
3800        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3801        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3802
3803        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3804
3805    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3806    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3807    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3808        to = expression.this
3809        value = expression.expression
3810        style = expression.args.get("style")
3811        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3812        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3813
3814        if not to or not value:
3815            return ""
3816
3817        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3818        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3819            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3820
3821        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3822        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3823
3824        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3825        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3826            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3827
3828            style_value = style.name
3829            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3830            if not converted_style:
3831                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3832
3833            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3834
3835            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3836                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3837            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3838                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3839            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3840                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3841            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3842                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3843
3844        if not transformed:
3845            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3846
3847        return self.sql(transformed)
3848
3849    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3850        this = expression.this
3851        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3852            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3853            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3854
3855        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3856            return f".{this}"
3857
3858        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3859        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3860
3861    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3862        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3863        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3864
3865    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3866        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3867            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3868
3869            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3870
3871        return expression
3872
3873    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3874        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3875            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3876            mods = sorted(
3877                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3878                key=lambda x: 0
3879                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3880                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3881            )
3882
3883            if mods:
3884                mod = mods[0]
3885                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3886                this.meta["inline"] = True
3887                mod.this.replace(this)
3888                return self.sql(expression.this)
3889
3890            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3891
3892            if agg_func:
3893                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3894
3895        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3896
3897    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3898        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3899        if self.pretty:
3900            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3901        return string
3902
3903    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3904        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3905
3906        if expression.expressions:
3907            upper = option.upper()
3908
3909            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3910            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3911
3912            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3913            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3914            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3915            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3916
3917        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3918
3919        if not value:
3920            return option
3921
3922        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3923
3924        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3925
3926    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3927        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3928        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3929            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3930            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3931            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3932        else:
3933            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3934            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3935            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3936
3937        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3938        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3939
3940        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3941        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3942
3943        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3944        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3945
3946        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3947        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3948
3949        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3950
3951    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3952        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3953        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3954
3955        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3956        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3957        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3958        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3959
3960        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3961        params = self.expressions(
3962            expression,
3963            key="params",
3964            sep=sep,
3965            new_line=True,
3966            skip_last=True,
3967            skip_first=True,
3968            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3969        )
3970
3971        if params:
3972            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3973                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3974            elif not self.pretty:
3975                params = f" {params}"
3976
3977        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3978
3979    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3980        return ""
3981
3982    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3983        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3984        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3985        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3986        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3987        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3988
3989        if filter_col or retention_period:
3990            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3991
3992        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3993
3994    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3995        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3996    ) -> str:
3997        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3998        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3999        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4000        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4001
4002    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4003        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4004        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4005        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4006
4007    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4008        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4009
4010    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4011        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4012        expr = expression.expression
4013
4014        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4015            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4016            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4017        else:
4018            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4019
4020        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4021
4022    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4023        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4024            return self.sql(expression.this)
4025
4026        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4027
4028    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4029        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4030        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4031
4032        if lower and upper:
4033            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4034        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4035
4036    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4037        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4038        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4039        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4040        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4041        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4042        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4043
4044        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4045
4046    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4047        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4048
4049        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4050        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4051            fill_pattern = "' '"
4052
4053        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4054
4055    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4056        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4057        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4058
4059    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4060        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4061
4062        parent = expression.parent
4063        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4064            parent = parent.parent
4065
4066        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4067            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4068
4069        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4070            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4071
4072        return self.sql(generate_series)
4073
4074    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4075        exprs = expression.expressions
4076        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4077            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4078        else:
4079            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4080
4081        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.ConnectByRoot: lambda self, e: f"CONNECT_BY_ROOT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  93        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  96        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  97        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  98        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  99        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
 100        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 101        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 102        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 103        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 104        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 105        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 106        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 108        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 109        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 110        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 111        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 112        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 113        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 114        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 115        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 116        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 117        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 118        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 119        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 120        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 121        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 122        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 123        exp.PivotAny: lambda self, e: f"ANY{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 125        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 127        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 129            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 130        ),
 131        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 133        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 134        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 135        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 136        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 137        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 138        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 139        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 140        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 141        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 142        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 143        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 144        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 145        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 146        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 147        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 148        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 149        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 150        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 151        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 152        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 153        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 154        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 155        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH SCHEMA {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 156        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 157    }
 158
 159    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 160    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 161    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 162
 163    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 164    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 165    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 166
 167    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 168    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 169
 170    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 171    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 172
 173    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 174    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 175
 176    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 177    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 178
 179    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 180    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 181
 182    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 183    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 184
 185    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 186    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 187
 188    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 189    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 190
 191    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 192    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 193
 194    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 195    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 196
 197    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 198    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 199
 200    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 201    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 202
 203    # Whether join hints should be generated
 204    JOIN_HINTS = True
 205
 206    # Whether table hints should be generated
 207    TABLE_HINTS = True
 208
 209    # Whether query hints should be generated
 210    QUERY_HINTS = True
 211
 212    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 213    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 214
 215    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 216    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 217
 218    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 219    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 220
 221    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 222    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 223
 224    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 225    RETURNING_END = True
 226
 227    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 228    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 229
 230    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 231    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 232
 233    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 234    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 235
 236    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 237    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 238
 239    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 240    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 241    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 242    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 243
 244    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 245    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 246
 247    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 248    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 249
 250    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 251    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 252
 253    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 254    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 255
 256    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 257    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 258
 259    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 260    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 261
 262    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 263    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 264
 265    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 266    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 267
 268    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 269    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 270
 271    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 272    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 273
 274    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 275    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 276
 277    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 278    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 279
 280    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 281    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 282
 283    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 284    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 285
 286    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 287    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 288
 289    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 290    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 291
 292    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 293    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 294
 295    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 296    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 297
 298    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 299    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 300
 301    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 302    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 303
 304    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 305    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 306
 307    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 308    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 309
 310    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 311    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 312
 313    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 314    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 315
 316    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 317    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 318
 319    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 320    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 321    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 322
 323    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 324    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 325
 326    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 327    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 328
 329    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 330    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 331
 332    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 333    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 334
 335    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 336    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 337
 338    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 339    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 340
 341    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 342    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 343    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 344    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 345
 346    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 347    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 348
 349    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 350    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 351
 352    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 353    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 354
 355    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 356    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 357
 358    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 359    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 360
 361    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 362    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 363
 364    # The HEX function name
 365    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 366
 367    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 368    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 369
 370    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 371    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 372
 373    # Whether the text pattern/fill (3rd) parameter of RPAD()/LPAD() is optional (defaults to space)
 374    PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
 375
 376    # Whether a projection can explode into multiple rows, e.g. by unnesting an array.
 377    SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
 378
 379    # Whether ARRAY_CONCAT can be generated with varlen args or if it should be reduced to 2-arg version
 380    ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
 381
 382    # The name to generate for the JSONPath expression. If `None`, only `this` will be generated
 383    PARSE_JSON_NAME: t.Optional[str] = "PARSE_JSON"
 384
 385    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 386        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 387        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 388        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 389        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 390        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 391        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 392        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 393        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 394        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 395        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 396    }
 397
 398    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 399        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 400        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 401        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 402        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 403        "DAYS": "DAY",
 404        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 405        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 406        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 407        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 408    }
 409
 410    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 411        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 412        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 413        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 414        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 415            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 416            if e.args.get("windows")
 417            else ""
 418        ),
 419        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 420    }
 421
 422    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 423
 424    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 425
 426    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 427    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 428
 429    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 430        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 432        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 436        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 438        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 443        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 446        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 447        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 448        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 449        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 453        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 454        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 455        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 456        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 457        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 458        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 460        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 461        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 462        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 463        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 468        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 469        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 470        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 471        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 472        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 474        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 477        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 480        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 486        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 488        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 492        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 494        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 495        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 500        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 501        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 503        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 504        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 505        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 506        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 507        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 508        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 509        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 510        exp.WithSchemaBindingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 511        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 512    }
 513
 514    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 515    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 516
 517    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 518    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 519        exp.Command,
 520        exp.Create,
 521        exp.Delete,
 522        exp.Drop,
 523        exp.From,
 524        exp.Insert,
 525        exp.Join,
 526        exp.Select,
 527        exp.SetOperation,
 528        exp.Update,
 529        exp.Where,
 530        exp.With,
 531    )
 532
 533    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 534    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 535        exp.Binary,
 536        exp.SetOperation,
 537    )
 538
 539    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 540    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 541        exp.Column,
 542        exp.Literal,
 543        exp.Neg,
 544        exp.Paren,
 545    )
 546
 547    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 548        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 549        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 550        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 551        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 552    }
 553
 554    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 555    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 556
 557    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 558
 559    __slots__ = (
 560        "pretty",
 561        "identify",
 562        "normalize",
 563        "pad",
 564        "_indent",
 565        "normalize_functions",
 566        "unsupported_level",
 567        "max_unsupported",
 568        "leading_comma",
 569        "max_text_width",
 570        "comments",
 571        "dialect",
 572        "unsupported_messages",
 573        "_escaped_quote_end",
 574        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 575        "_next_name",
 576    )
 577
 578    def __init__(
 579        self,
 580        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 581        identify: str | bool = False,
 582        normalize: bool = False,
 583        pad: int = 2,
 584        indent: int = 2,
 585        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 586        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 587        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 588        leading_comma: bool = False,
 589        max_text_width: int = 80,
 590        comments: bool = True,
 591        dialect: DialectType = None,
 592    ):
 593        import sqlglot
 594        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 595
 596        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 597        self.identify = identify
 598        self.normalize = normalize
 599        self.pad = pad
 600        self._indent = indent
 601        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 602        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 603        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 604        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 605        self.comments = comments
 606        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 607
 608        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 609        self.normalize_functions = (
 610            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 611        )
 612
 613        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 614        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 615            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 616        )
 617        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 618            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 619        )
 620
 621        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 622
 623    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 624        """
 625        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 626
 627        Args:
 628            expression: The syntax tree.
 629            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 630                it is safer to copy.
 631
 632        Returns:
 633            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 634        """
 635        if copy:
 636            expression = expression.copy()
 637
 638        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 639
 640        self.unsupported_messages = []
 641        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 642
 643        if self.pretty:
 644            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 645
 646        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 647            return sql
 648
 649        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 650            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 651                logger.warning(msg)
 652        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 653            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 654
 655        return sql
 656
 657    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 658        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 659        if (
 660            not expression.parent
 661            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 662            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 663        ):
 664            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 665
 666            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 667
 668        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 669            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 670
 671            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 672
 673        return expression
 674
 675    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 676        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 677            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 678        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 679
 680    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 681        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 682
 683    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 684        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 685
 686    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 687        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 688        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 689        return comment
 690
 691    def maybe_comment(
 692        self,
 693        sql: str,
 694        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 695        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 696        separated: bool = False,
 697    ) -> str:
 698        comments = (
 699            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 700            if self.comments
 701            else None
 702        )
 703
 704        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 705            return sql
 706
 707        comments_sql = " ".join(
 708            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 709        )
 710
 711        if not comments_sql:
 712            return sql
 713
 714        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 715
 716        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 717            return (
 718                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 719                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 720                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 721            )
 722
 723        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 724
 725    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 726        this_sql = (
 727            self.sql(expression)
 728            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 729            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 730        )
 731        if not this_sql:
 732            return "()"
 733
 734        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 735        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 736
 737    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 738        original = self.identify
 739        self.identify = False
 740        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 741        self.identify = original
 742        return result
 743
 744    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 745        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 746            return name.upper()
 747        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 748            return name.lower()
 749        return name
 750
 751    def indent(
 752        self,
 753        sql: str,
 754        level: int = 0,
 755        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 756        skip_first: bool = False,
 757        skip_last: bool = False,
 758    ) -> str:
 759        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 760            return sql
 761
 762        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 763        lines = sql.split("\n")
 764
 765        return "\n".join(
 766            (
 767                line
 768                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 769                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 770            )
 771            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 772        )
 773
 774    def sql(
 775        self,
 776        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 777        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 778        comment: bool = True,
 779    ) -> str:
 780        if not expression:
 781            return ""
 782
 783        if isinstance(expression, str):
 784            return expression
 785
 786        if key:
 787            value = expression.args.get(key)
 788            if value:
 789                return self.sql(value)
 790            return ""
 791
 792        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 793
 794        if callable(transform):
 795            sql = transform(self, expression)
 796        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 797            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 798
 799            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 800                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 801            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 802                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 803            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 804                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 805            else:
 806                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 807        else:
 808            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 809
 810        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 811
 812    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 813        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 814        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 815        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 816
 817    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 818        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 819        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 820        options = expression.args.get("options")
 821        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 822        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 823        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 824        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 825        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 826
 827    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 828        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 829            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 830        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 831        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 832
 833    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 834        return ".".join(
 835            self.sql(part)
 836            for part in (
 837                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 838                expression.args.get("db"),
 839                expression.args.get("table"),
 840                expression.args.get("this"),
 841            )
 842            if part
 843        )
 844
 845    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 846        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 847
 848        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 849            join_mark = ""
 850            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 851
 852        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 853
 854    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 856        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 857        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 858        return f"{position}{this}"
 859
 860    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 861        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 862        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 863        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 864        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 865        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 866        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 867        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 868        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 869
 870        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 871            kind = ""
 872
 873        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 874
 875    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 877        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 878        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 879
 880    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 882        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 883            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 884        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 885            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 886        else:
 887            persisted = ""
 888        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 889
 890    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 891        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 892
 893    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 894        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 895            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 896        else:
 897            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 898
 899        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 900
 901    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 902        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 903    ) -> str:
 904        this = ""
 905        if expression.this is not None:
 906            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 907            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 908
 909        start = expression.args.get("start")
 910        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 911        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 912        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 913        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 914        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 915        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 916        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 917        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 918        cycle_sql = ""
 919
 920        if cycle is not None:
 921            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 922            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 923
 924        sequence_opts = ""
 925        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 926            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 927            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 928
 929        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 930        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 931
 932        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 933
 934    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 935        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 936    ) -> str:
 937        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 938        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 939        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 940
 941    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 942        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 943    ) -> str:
 944        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 945
 946    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 947        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 948
 949    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 950        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 951
 952    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 953        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 954        if desc is not None:
 955            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 956        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 957
 958    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 959        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 960        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 961        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 962        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 963        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 964        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 965        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
 966        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 967
 968    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 969        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 970
 971    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 972        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 973        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 974        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 975
 976        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 977
 978        properties_sql = ""
 979        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 980            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 981        ):
 982            properties_sql = self.sql(
 983                exp.Properties(
 984                    expressions=[
 985                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 986                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 987                    ]
 988                )
 989            )
 990
 991            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 992                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 993            elif not self.pretty:
 994                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 995                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 996
 997        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 998        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 999
1000        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1001        if expression_sql:
1002            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1003
1004            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1005                postalias_props_sql = ""
1006                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1007                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1008                        exp.Properties(
1009                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1010                        ),
1011                        wrapped=False,
1012                    )
1013                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1014                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1015
1016        postindex_props_sql = ""
1017        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1018            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1019                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1020                wrapped=False,
1021                prefix=" ",
1022            )
1023
1024        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1025        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1026        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1027
1028        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1029        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1030
1031        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1032        if clustered is None:
1033            clustered_sql = ""
1034        elif clustered:
1035            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1036        else:
1037            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1038
1039        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1040        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1041            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1042                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1043                sep=" ",
1044                prefix=" ",
1045                wrapped=False,
1046            )
1047
1048        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1049
1050        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1051        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1052            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1053                exp.Properties(
1054                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1055                ),
1056                sep=" ",
1057                prefix=" ",
1058                wrapped=False,
1059            )
1060
1061        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1062        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1063        no_schema_binding = (
1064            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1065        )
1066
1067        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1068        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1069
1070        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1071        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1072
1073    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1074        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1075        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1076        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1077        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1078        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1079        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1080        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1081        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1082        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1083        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1084
1085        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1086        if cache is None:
1087            cache_str = ""
1088        elif cache is True:
1089            cache_str = " CACHE"
1090        else:
1091            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1092
1093        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1094        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1095
1096        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1097
1098    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1100        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1101        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1102        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1103
1104    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1105        style = expression.args.get("style")
1106        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1107        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1108
1109    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1110        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1111        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1112
1113    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1114        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1115        if with_:
1116            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1117        return sql
1118
1119    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1120        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1121        recursive = (
1122            "RECURSIVE "
1123            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1124            else ""
1125        )
1126
1127        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1128
1129    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1130        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1131
1132        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1133        if materialized is False:
1134            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1135        elif materialized:
1136            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1137
1138        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1139
1140    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1141        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1142        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1143        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1144
1145        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1146            columns = ""
1147            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1148
1149        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1150            alias = self._next_name()
1151
1152        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1153
1154    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1156        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1157            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1158        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1159
1160    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1161        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1162        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1163            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1164        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1165
1166    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1169            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1170        return this
1171
1172    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1175
1176        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1177            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1178            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1179        else:
1180            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1181            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1182
1183        if escape:
1184            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1185            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1186        else:
1187            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1188            escape_sql = ""
1189
1190        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1191            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1192
1193        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1194
1195    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1196        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1197        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1198
1199    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1200        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1201        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1202        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1203        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1204
1205    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1206        type_value = expression.this
1207
1208        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1209            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1210        else:
1211            type_sql = (
1212                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1213                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1214                else type_value
1215            )
1216
1217        nested = ""
1218        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1219        values = ""
1220
1221        if interior:
1222            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1223                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1224                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1225                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1226                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1227                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1228            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1229                nested = f" {interior}"
1230            else:
1231                nested = f"({interior})"
1232
1233        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1234        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1235            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1236            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1237        ):
1238            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1239
1240        return type_sql
1241
1242    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1243        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1244        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1245        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1246        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1247
1248    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1250        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1251        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1252        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1253        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1254        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1255        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1256        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1257        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1258        if self.RETURNING_END:
1259            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1260        else:
1261            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1262        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1263
1264    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1267        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1268        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1269        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1270        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1271        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1272        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1273        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1274        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1275        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1276        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1277        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1278
1279    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1280        return self.set_operations(expression)
1281
1282    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1283        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1284
1285    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1286        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1287        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1288        count = expression.args.get("count")
1289        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1290        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1291            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1292        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1293        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1294
1295    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1296        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1297            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1298            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1299            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1300
1301        agg = expression.this
1302        agg_arg = agg.this
1303        cond = expression.expression.this
1304        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1305        return self.sql(agg)
1306
1307    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1308        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1309            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1310            return ""
1311
1312        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1313
1314    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1315        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1316        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1317        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1318        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1319        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1320        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1321        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1322        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1323        if include:
1324            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1325        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1326        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1327        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1328        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1329        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1330        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1331
1332        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1333
1334    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1335        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1336        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1337        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1338        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1339        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1340        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1341        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1342
1343        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1344
1345        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1346        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1347
1348    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1349        text = expression.name
1350        lower = text.lower()
1351        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1352        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1353        if (
1354            expression.quoted
1355            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1356            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1357            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1358        ):
1359            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1360        return text
1361
1362    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1363        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1364        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1365            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1366
1367        return text
1368
1369    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1370        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1371        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1372            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1373        return text
1374
1375    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1376        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1377        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1378        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1379        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1380        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1381
1382    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1383        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1384        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1385
1386    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1387        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1388
1389    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1390        root_properties = []
1391        with_properties = []
1392
1393        for p in expression.expressions:
1394            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1395            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1396                with_properties.append(p)
1397            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1398                root_properties.append(p)
1399
1400        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1401        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1402
1403        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1404            with_props = " " + with_props
1405
1406        return root_props + with_props
1407
1408    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1409        if properties.expressions:
1410            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1411        return ""
1412
1413    def properties(
1414        self,
1415        properties: exp.Properties,
1416        prefix: str = "",
1417        sep: str = ", ",
1418        suffix: str = "",
1419        wrapped: bool = True,
1420    ) -> str:
1421        if properties.expressions:
1422            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1423            if expressions:
1424                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1425                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1426        return ""
1427
1428    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1429        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1430
1431    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1432        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1433        for p in properties.expressions:
1434            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1435            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1436                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1437            else:
1438                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1439
1440        return properties_locs
1441
1442    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1443        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1444            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1445        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1446
1447    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1448        property_cls = expression.__class__
1449        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1450            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1451
1452        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1453        if not property_name:
1454            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1455
1456        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1457
1458    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1459        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1460            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1461            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1462
1463            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1464            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1465                like = f"({like})"
1466
1467            return like
1468
1469        if expression.expressions:
1470            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1471
1472        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1473        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1474
1475    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1476        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1477        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1478        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1479
1480    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1481        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1482        local = expression.args.get("local")
1483        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1484        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1485        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1486        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1487        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1488
1489    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1490        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1491        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1492        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1493
1494    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1495        if expression.args.get("default"):
1496            property = "DEFAULT"
1497        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1498            property = "ON"
1499        else:
1500            property = "OFF"
1501        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1502
1503    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1504        if expression.args.get("no"):
1505            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1506        if expression.args.get("default"):
1507            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1508
1509        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1510        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1511
1512    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1513        default = expression.args.get("default")
1514        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1515        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1516        if default or minimum or maximum:
1517            if default:
1518                prop = "DEFAULT"
1519            elif minimum:
1520                prop = "MINIMUM"
1521            else:
1522                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1523            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1524        units = expression.args.get("units")
1525        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1526        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1527
1528    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1529        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1530        always = expression.args.get("always")
1531        default = expression.args.get("default")
1532        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1533        never = expression.args.get("never")
1534
1535        if autotemp is not None:
1536            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1537        elif always:
1538            prop = "ALWAYS"
1539        elif default:
1540            prop = "DEFAULT"
1541        elif manual:
1542            prop = "MANUAL"
1543        elif never:
1544            prop = "NEVER"
1545        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1546
1547    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1548        no = expression.args.get("no")
1549        no = " NO" if no else ""
1550        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1551        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1552        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1553        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1554        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1555
1556    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1557        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1558            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1559        if expression.this:
1560            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1561            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1562            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1563
1564        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1565        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1566        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1567
1568    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1570
1571        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1572        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1573            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1574        else:
1575            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1576
1577        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1578
1579    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1580        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1581        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1582        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1583        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1584        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1585        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1586        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1587
1588    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1589        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1590        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1591        statistics_sql = ""
1592        if statistics is not None:
1593            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1594        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1595
1596    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1598        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1599        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1600        data_consistency = (
1601            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1602        )
1603        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1604        retention_period = (
1605            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1606        )
1607
1608        if this:
1609            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1610        else:
1611            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1612
1613        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1614
1615        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1616
1617    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1618        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1619        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1620
1621        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1622            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1623        else:
1624            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1625
1626        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1627        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1628        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1629        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1630        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1631        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1632        if is_function:
1633            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1634        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1635
1636        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1637        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1638        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1639        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1640        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1641        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1642        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1643        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1644
1645        if self.RETURNING_END:
1646            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1647        else:
1648            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1649
1650        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1651        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1652
1653    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1654        return self.set_operations(expression)
1655
1656    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1657        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1658
1659    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1660        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1661
1662    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1663        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1664        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1665        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1666        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1667        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1668
1669    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1670        return expression.name
1671
1672    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1673        return expression.name
1674
1675    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1676        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1677
1678        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1679        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1680
1681        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1682        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1683        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1684
1685        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1686        if expressions:
1687            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1688            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1689
1690        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1691
1692    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1693        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1694
1695    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1696        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1697        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1698        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1699        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1700        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1701        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1702        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1703        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1704        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1705        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1706        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1707        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1708        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1709
1710    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1711        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1712
1713    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1714        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1715        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1716        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1717        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1718
1719    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1721        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1722        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1723        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1724
1725    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1726        return ".".join(
1727            self.sql(part)
1728            for part in (
1729                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1730                expression.args.get("db"),
1731                expression.args.get("this"),
1732            )
1733            if part is not None
1734        )
1735
1736    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1737        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1738        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1739        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1740        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1741        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1742        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1743        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1744        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1745        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1746        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1747        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1748        joins = self.indent(
1749            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1750        )
1751        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1752
1753        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1754        if file_format:
1755            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1756            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1757            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1758
1759        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1760        if ordinality:
1761            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1762            alias = ""
1763
1764        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1765        if when:
1766            table = f"{table} {when}"
1767
1768        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1769        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1770
1771        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1772        if rows_from:
1773            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1774
1775        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1776
1777    def tablesample_sql(
1778        self,
1779        expression: exp.TableSample,
1780        sep: str = " AS ",
1781        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1782    ) -> str:
1783        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1784            table = expression.this.copy()
1785            table.set("alias", None)
1786            this = self.sql(table)
1787            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1788        else:
1789            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1790            alias = ""
1791
1792        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1793        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1794        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1795        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1796        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1797        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1798        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1799        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1800        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1801
1802        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1803        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1804            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1805
1806        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1807        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1808            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1809
1810        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1811        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1812            expr = f"({expr})"
1813
1814        return (
1815            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1816        )
1817
1818    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1819        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1820
1821        if expression.this:
1822            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1823            if not expressions:
1824                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1825
1826            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1827            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1828            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1829            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1830            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1831
1832        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1833        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1834        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1835
1836        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1837        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1838            field = f"IN ({field})"
1839
1840        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1841        if include_nulls is not None:
1842            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1843        else:
1844            nulls = ""
1845
1846        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1847        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1848        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
1849
1850    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1851        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1852        kind = expression.text("kind")
1853        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1854        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1855
1856    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1857        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
1858
1859    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1861        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1862        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1863        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1864        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1865        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1866        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1867        if self.RETURNING_END:
1868            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1869        else:
1870            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1871        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1872        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1873
1874    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1875        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1876
1877        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1878        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1879            args = self.expressions(expression)
1880            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1881            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1882            values = (
1883                f"({values})"
1884                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1885                else values
1886            )
1887            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1888
1889        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1890        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1891        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1892
1893        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1894
1895        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1896            row = tup.expressions
1897
1898            if i == 0 and column_names:
1899                row = [
1900                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1901                ]
1902
1903            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1904
1905        if self.pretty:
1906            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1907            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1908            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1909            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1910            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1911
1912        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1913        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1914        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1915
1916    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1917        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1918
1919    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1920        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1921        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1922        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1923
1924    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1925        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1926
1927    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1928        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1929        if group_by_all is True:
1930            modifier = " ALL"
1931        elif group_by_all is False:
1932            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1933        else:
1934            modifier = ""
1935
1936        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1937
1938        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1939        grouping_sets = (
1940            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1941        )
1942
1943        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1944        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1945            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1946        else:
1947            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1948            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1949
1950        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1951        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1952            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1953        else:
1954            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1955            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1956
1957        groupings = csv(
1958            grouping_sets,
1959            cube_sql,
1960            rollup_sql,
1961            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1962            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1963        )
1964
1965        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1966            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1967
1968        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1969
1970    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1971        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1972        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1973
1974    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1975        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1976        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1977        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1978        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1979        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1980        return start + connect
1981
1982    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1983        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1984
1985    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1986        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1987            side = None
1988        else:
1989            side = expression.side
1990
1991        op_sql = " ".join(
1992            op
1993            for op in (
1994                expression.method,
1995                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1996                side,
1997                expression.kind,
1998                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1999            )
2000            if op
2001        )
2002        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2003        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2004        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2005        using = expression.args.get("using")
2006
2007        if not on_sql and using:
2008            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2009
2010        this = expression.this
2011        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2012
2013        if on_sql:
2014            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2015            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2016            if using:
2017                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2018            else:
2019                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2020        elif not op_sql:
2021            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2022                return f" {this_sql}"
2023
2024            return f", {this_sql}"
2025
2026        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2027            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2028
2029        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
2030
2031    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2032        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2033        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2034        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2035
2036    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2037        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2038
2039        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2040        if cross_apply is True:
2041            op = "INNER JOIN "
2042        elif cross_apply is False:
2043            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2044        else:
2045            op = ""
2046
2047        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2048
2049    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2051
2052        if expression.args.get("view"):
2053            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2054            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2055            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2056            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2057            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2058            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2059
2060        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2061        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2062        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2063
2064    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066
2067        args = [
2068            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2069            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2070            if e
2071        ]
2072
2073        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2074        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2075        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2076        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2077
2078        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2079
2080    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2082        value = expression.expression
2083        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2084        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2085        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2086        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2087
2088    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2089        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2090        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2093        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2094        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2095        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2096        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2097
2098    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2099        expressions = (
2100            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2101        )
2102        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2103        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2104
2105    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2106        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2107
2108    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2109        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2110            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2111            return ""
2112
2113        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2114        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2115        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2116        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2117
2118        if wait is not None:
2119            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2120                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2121            else:
2122                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2123
2124        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2125
2126    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2127        text = expression.this or ""
2128        if expression.is_string:
2129            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2130        return text
2131
2132    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2133        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2134            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2135            text = "".join(
2136                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2137            )
2138
2139        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2140            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2141        )
2142
2143    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2144        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2145        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2146        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2147        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2148        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2149        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2150        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2151        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2152        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2153        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2154        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2155
2156    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2157        return "NULL"
2158
2159    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2160        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2161
2162    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2164        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2165        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2166        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2167        interpolated_values = [
2168            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2169            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2170        ]
2171        interpolate = (
2172            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2173        )
2174        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2175
2176    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2177        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2178        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2179        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2180        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2181        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2182        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2183        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2184
2185    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2186        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2187
2188    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2189        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2190
2191    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2192        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2193
2194    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2195        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2196        asc = not desc
2197
2198        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2199        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2200        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2201        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2202        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2203
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205
2206        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2207        nulls_sort_change = ""
2208        if nulls_first and (
2209            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2210        ):
2211            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2212        elif (
2213            nulls_last
2214            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2215            and not nulls_are_last
2216        ):
2217            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2218
2219        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2220        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2221            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2222            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2223                self.unsupported(
2224                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2225                )
2226                nulls_sort_change = ""
2227            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2228                if expression.this.is_int:
2229                    self.unsupported(
2230                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2231                    )
2232                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2233                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2234                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2235                nulls_sort_change = ""
2236
2237        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2238        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2239
2240        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2241
2242    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2243        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2244        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2245
2246        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2247
2248        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2249
2250    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2251        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2252        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2253        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2254        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2255        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2256        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2257        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2258        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2259        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2260        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2261        definition_sqls = [
2262            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2263            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2264        ]
2265        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2266        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2267        body = "".join(
2268            (
2269                partition,
2270                order,
2271                measures,
2272                rows,
2273                after,
2274                pattern,
2275                define,
2276            )
2277        )
2278        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2279        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2280        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2281
2282    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2283        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2284
2285        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2286            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2287        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2288            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2289
2290        return csv(
2291            *sqls,
2292            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2293            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2294            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2295            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2296            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2297            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2298            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2299            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2300            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2301            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2302            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2303            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2304            self.options_modifier(expression),
2305            sep="",
2306        )
2307
2308    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2309        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2310        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2311
2312    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2313        return ""
2314
2315    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2316        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2317    ) -> t.List[str]:
2318        return [
2319            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2320            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2321        ]
2322
2323    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2324        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2325        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2326        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2327
2328    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2329        into = expression.args.get("into")
2330        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2331            into.pop()
2332
2333        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2334        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2335        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2336        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2337
2338        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2339        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2340            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2341            limit.pop()
2342        else:
2343            top = ""
2344
2345        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2346
2347        if kind:
2348            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2349                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2350            else:
2351                if kind == "STRUCT":
2352                    expressions = self.expressions(
2353                        sqls=[
2354                            self.sql(
2355                                exp.Struct(
2356                                    expressions=[
2357                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2358                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2359                                        else e
2360                                        for e in expression.expressions
2361                                    ]
2362                                )
2363                            )
2364                        ]
2365                    )
2366                kind = ""
2367
2368        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2369        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2370        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2371        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2372        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2373            expression,
2374            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2375            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2376            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2377        )
2378
2379        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2380
2381        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2382            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2383                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2384            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2385                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2386            else:
2387                table_kind = ""
2388            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2389
2390        return sql
2391
2392    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2394        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2395        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2396
2397    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2398        if expression.expressions:
2399            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2400        return ""
2401
2402    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2403        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2404        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2405        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2406        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2407        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2408        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2409        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2410
2411    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2413        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2414
2415    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2417        kind = expression.text("kind")
2418        if kind:
2419            kind = f"{kind}."
2420        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2421
2422    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2423        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2424
2425    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2426        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2427        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2428        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2429        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2430        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2431
2432    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2433        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2434        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2435
2436    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2437        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2438            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2439            order = expression.args.get("order")
2440
2441            if limit or order:
2442                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2443
2444                if limit:
2445                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2446                if order:
2447                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2448                return self.sql(select)
2449
2450        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2451        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2452
2453        while stack:
2454            node = stack.pop()
2455
2456            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2457                stack.append(node.expression)
2458                stack.append(
2459                    self.maybe_comment(
2460                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2461                        comments=node.comments,
2462                        separated=True,
2463                    )
2464                )
2465                stack.append(node.this)
2466            else:
2467                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2468
2469        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2470        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2471        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2472
2473    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2474        return self.set_operations(expression)
2475
2476    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2477        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2478        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2479        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2480        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2481
2482    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2483        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2484
2485        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2486        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2487
2488        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2489            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2490                alias.append("columns", offset)
2491
2492        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2493            columns = alias.columns
2494            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2495        else:
2496            alias = self.sql(alias)
2497
2498        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2499        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2500            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2501        else:
2502            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2503                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2504            elif offset:
2505                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2506            else:
2507                suffix = alias
2508
2509        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2510
2511    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2512        return ""
2513
2514    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2515        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2516        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2517
2518    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2519        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2520        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2521        order = expression.args.get("order")
2522        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2523        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2524        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2525        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2526
2527        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2528
2529        first = expression.args.get("first")
2530        if first is None:
2531            first = ""
2532        else:
2533            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2534
2535        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2536            return f"{this} {alias}"
2537
2538        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2539        return f"{this} ({args})"
2540
2541    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2542        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2543        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2544
2545    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2546        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2547        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2548        end = (
2549            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2550            or "CURRENT ROW"
2551        )
2552        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2553
2554    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2557        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2558
2559    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2561        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2562        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2563        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2564
2565    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2566        return apply_index_offset(
2567            expression.this,
2568            expression.expressions,
2569            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2570        )
2571
2572    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2573        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2574        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2575        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2576
2577    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2578        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2579
2580    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2582        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2583            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2584                this = self.wrap(this)
2585            return f"ANY{this}"
2586        return f"ANY {this}"
2587
2588    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2589        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2590
2591    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2592        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2593        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2594
2595        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2596            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2597            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2598
2599        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2600
2601        if default:
2602            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2603
2604        statements.append("END")
2605
2606        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2607            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2608
2609        return " ".join(statements)
2610
2611    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2613        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2614        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2615
2616    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2617        order = expression.args.get("order")
2618        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2619        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2620
2621    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2622        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2623        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2624        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2625
2626    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2627        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2628
2629        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2630            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2631        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2632            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2633        else:
2634            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2635
2636    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2637        args = expression.expressions
2638        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2639            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2640
2641        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2642            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2643
2644        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2645            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2646
2647        return args
2648
2649    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2650        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2651
2652        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2653        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2654            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2655
2656        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2657
2658    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2659        return self.func(
2660            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2661        )
2662
2663    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2664        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2665        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2666
2667    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2668        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2669        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2670        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2671        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2672        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2673        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2674        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2675        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2676
2677    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2678        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2679        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2680        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2681        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2682
2683    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2684        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2685
2686    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2687        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2688        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2689        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2690
2691    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2692        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2693
2694    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2695        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2696        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2697            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2698
2699        return path
2700
2701    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2702        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2703            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2704            if not callable(transform):
2705                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2706                return ""
2707
2708            return transform(self, expression)
2709
2710        if isinstance(expression, int):
2711            return str(expression)
2712
2713        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2714            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2715            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2716        else:
2717            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2718            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2719
2720        return escaped
2721
2722    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2723        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2724
2725    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2726        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2727        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2728
2729        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2730        if unique_keys is not None:
2731            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2732        else:
2733            unique_keys = ""
2734
2735        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2736        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2737        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2738        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2739
2740        return self.func(
2741            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2742            *expression.expressions,
2743            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2744        )
2745
2746    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2747        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2748
2749    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2750        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2751        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2752        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2753        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2754        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2755        return self.func(
2756            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2757        )
2758
2759    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2762        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2763        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2764        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2765        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2766        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2767        return self.func(
2768            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2769            this,
2770            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2771        )
2772
2773    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2774        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2775        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2776        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2777
2778        if nested_schema:
2779            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2780
2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2782        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2783        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2784        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2785
2786    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2787        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2788
2789    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2791        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2792        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2793        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2794        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2795        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2796        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2797        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2798        return self.func(
2799            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2800        )
2801
2802    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2804        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2805        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2806        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2807        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2808        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2809
2810    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2813        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2814        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2815        with_ = (
2816            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2817            if expressions
2818            else ""
2819        )
2820        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2821
2822    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2823        query = expression.args.get("query")
2824        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2825        field = expression.args.get("field")
2826        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2827
2828        if query:
2829            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2830        elif unnest:
2831            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2832        elif field:
2833            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2834        else:
2835            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2836
2837        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2838
2839    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2840        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2841
2842    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2843        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2844        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2845            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2846        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2847
2848        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2849            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2850            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2851
2852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2853        if this:
2854            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2855            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2856
2857        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2858
2859    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2860        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2861
2862    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2864        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2865        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2866        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2867        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2868        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2869
2870    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2871        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2872
2873    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2874        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2875        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2876
2877    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2878        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2879        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2880        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2881        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2882
2883    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2884        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2885
2886    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2887        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2888        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2889        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2890
2891    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2892        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2893        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2894
2895        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2896            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2897        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2898            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2899
2900        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2901
2902    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2903        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2904
2905    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2907        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2908        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2909
2910    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2912        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2913        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2914
2915    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2917        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2918        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2919
2920    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2921        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2922
2923    def and_sql(
2924        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2925    ) -> str:
2926        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2927
2928    def or_sql(
2929        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2930    ) -> str:
2931        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2932
2933    def xor_sql(
2934        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2935    ) -> str:
2936        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2937
2938    def connector_sql(
2939        self,
2940        expression: exp.Connector,
2941        op: str,
2942        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2943    ) -> str:
2944        if stack is not None:
2945            if expression.expressions:
2946                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2947            else:
2948                stack.append(expression.right)
2949                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2950                    for comment in expression.comments:
2951                        if comment:
2952                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2953                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2954            return op
2955
2956        stack = [expression]
2957        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2958        ops = set()
2959
2960        while stack:
2961            node = stack.pop()
2962            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2963                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2964            else:
2965                sql = self.sql(node)
2966                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2967                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2968                else:
2969                    sqls.append(sql)
2970
2971        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2972        return sep.join(sqls)
2973
2974    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2975        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2976
2977    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2978        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2979
2980    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2981        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2982
2983    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2984        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2985
2986    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2987        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2988
2989    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2990        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2991
2992    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2993        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2994        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2995        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2996        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2997        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2998        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2999        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
3000
3001    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3002        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3003        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
3004
3005    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3006        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3007            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3008        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
3009
3010    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3011        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
3012
3013    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3015        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3016        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3017        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3018        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3019        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
3020
3021    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3023        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3024        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3025        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3026        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3027        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3028        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3029        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3030        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3031
3032    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3033        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3034        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3035        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3036        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3037
3038        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3039            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3040
3041        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3042
3043    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3044        return "BEGIN"
3045
3046    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3047        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3048        if chain is not None:
3049            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3050
3051        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3052
3053    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3054        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3055        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3056        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3057
3058    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3060
3061        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3062        if dtype:
3063            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3064            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3065            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3066            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3067            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3068
3069        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3070        if default:
3071            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3072
3073        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3074        if comment:
3075            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3076
3077        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3078        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3079
3080        if not drop and not allow_null:
3081            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3082
3083        if allow_null is not None:
3084            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3085            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3086
3087        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3088
3089    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3091        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3092            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3093        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3094
3095    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3096        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3099        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3100        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3101
3102    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3103        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3104            # Remove db from tables
3105            expression = expression.transform(
3106                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3107            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3109        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3110
3111    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3112        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3113        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3114        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3115        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3116
3117    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3118        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3119        return f"SET {exprs}"
3120
3121    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3122        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3123
3124        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3125            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3126        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3127            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3128        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3129            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3130        else:
3131            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3132
3133        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3134        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3135        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3136        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3137        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3138        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3139        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3140
3141    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3142        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3143            return self.expressions(
3144                expression,
3145                key="actions",
3146                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3147                skip_first=True,
3148            )
3149        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3150
3151    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3152        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3153        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3154        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3155
3156    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3157        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3158
3159    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3160        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3161
3162        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3163            case = exp.case()
3164            for arg in expression.expressions:
3165                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3166            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3167
3168        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3169
3170        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3171        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3172        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3173
3174    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3175        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3176
3177    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3178        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3179
3180    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3181        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3182        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3183        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3184        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3185
3186    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3187        return self.sql(
3188            exp.Cast(
3189                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3190                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3191            )
3192        )
3193
3194    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3195        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3196            return self.func(
3197                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3198            )
3199        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3200
3201    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3202        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3203
3204        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3205            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3206
3207        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3208            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3209                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3210
3211        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3212            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3213                return self.sql(
3214                    exp.cast(
3215                        l / r,
3216                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3217                    )
3218                )
3219
3220        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3221
3222    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3223        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3224
3225    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3226        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3227
3228    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3229        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3230
3231    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3232        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3233
3234    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3235        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3236
3237    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3239
3240    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3241        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3242
3243    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3245
3246    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3248
3249    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3251
3252    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3254
3255    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3256        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3257            return self.sql(
3258                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3259            )
3260        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3261
3262    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3263        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3264
3265    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3266        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3267
3268    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3269        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3270
3271    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3272        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3273
3274    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3275        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3276
3277    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3278        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3279
3280    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3281        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3282
3283    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3284        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3285
3286    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3287        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3288
3289    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3290        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3291
3292    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3293        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3294
3295    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3296        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3297
3298    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3299        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3300
3301    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3302        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3303            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3304            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3305
3306        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3307
3308    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3309        this = expression.this
3310        expr = expression.expression
3311
3312        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3313            this, expr = expr, this
3314        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3315            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3316                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3317
3318            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3319
3320        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3321
3322    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3323        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3324        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3326        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3327        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3328
3329    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3330        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3331        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3332
3333    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3334        args = []
3335
3336        for key in expression.arg_types:
3337            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3338
3339            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3340                for value in arg_value:
3341                    args.append(value)
3342            elif arg_value is not None:
3343                args.append(arg_value)
3344
3345        if self.normalize_functions:
3346            name = expression.sql_name()
3347        else:
3348            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3349
3350        return self.func(name, *args)
3351
3352    def func(
3353        self,
3354        name: str,
3355        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3356        prefix: str = "(",
3357        suffix: str = ")",
3358    ) -> str:
3359        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3360
3361    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3362        arg_sqls = tuple(
3363            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3364        )
3365        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3366            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3367        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3368
3369    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3370        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3371
3372    def format_time(
3373        self,
3374        expression: exp.Expression,
3375        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3376        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3377    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3378        return format_time(
3379            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3380            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3381            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3382        )
3383
3384    def expressions(
3385        self,
3386        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3387        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3388        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3389        flat: bool = False,
3390        indent: bool = True,
3391        skip_first: bool = False,
3392        skip_last: bool = False,
3393        sep: str = ", ",
3394        prefix: str = "",
3395        dynamic: bool = False,
3396        new_line: bool = False,
3397    ) -> str:
3398        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3399
3400        if not expressions:
3401            return ""
3402
3403        if flat:
3404            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3405
3406        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3407        result_sqls = []
3408
3409        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3410            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3411            if not sql:
3412                continue
3413
3414            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3415
3416            if self.pretty:
3417                if self.leading_comma:
3418                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3419                else:
3420                    result_sqls.append(
3421                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3422                    )
3423            else:
3424                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3425
3426        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3427            if new_line:
3428                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3429                result_sqls.append("")
3430            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3431        else:
3432            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3433        return (
3434            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3435            if indent
3436            else result_sql
3437        )
3438
3439    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3440        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3441        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3442        if flat:
3443            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3444        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3445
3446    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3447        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3448        if not property_name:
3449            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3450        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3451
3452    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3453        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3454
3455    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3456        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3457
3458    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3459        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3460        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3461        expressions = (
3462            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3463        )
3464        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3465
3466    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3467        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3468        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3469        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3470
3471    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3472        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3473
3474    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3475        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3476        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3477        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3478        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3479
3480        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3481        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3482            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3483            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3484            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3485            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3486        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3487            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3488                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3489            else:
3490                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3491        else:
3492            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3493        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3494
3495    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3496        table = expression.this
3497        table_alias = ""
3498
3499        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3500        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3501            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3502            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3503
3504        this = self.sql(table)
3505        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3506        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3507        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3508        sep = self.sep()
3509
3510        return self.prepend_ctes(
3511            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3512        )
3513
3514    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3515        if expression.args.get("format"):
3516            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3517
3518        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3519
3520    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3521        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3522            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3523            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3524
3525        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3526        if not fmt:
3527            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3528            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3529
3530        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3531
3532    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3534        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3535        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3536        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3537        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3538
3539    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3541        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3542        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3543        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3544
3545    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3546        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3547
3548    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3549        return ""
3550
3551    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3552        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3553        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3554        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3555        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3556        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3557
3558    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3560        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3561
3562        if having:
3563            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3564
3565        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3566
3567    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3568        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3569        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3570        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3571        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3572        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3573        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3574        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3575        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3576        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3577        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3578        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3579        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3580        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3581
3582    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3583        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3584        if key_block_size:
3585            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3586
3587        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3588        if using:
3589            return f"USING {using}"
3590
3591        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3592        if parser:
3593            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3594
3595        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3596        if comment:
3597            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3598
3599        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3600        if visible is not None:
3601            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3602
3603        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3604        if engine_attr:
3605            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3606
3607        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3608        if secondary_engine_attr:
3609            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3610
3611        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3612        return ""
3613
3614    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3615        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3616        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3617
3618    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3619        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3620        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3622        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3623        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3624        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3625        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3626        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3627        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3628        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3629        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3630
3631    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3632        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3633            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3634
3635        case = exp.Case().when(
3636            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3637            expression.args["true"],
3638            copy=False,
3639        )
3640        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3641        if else_cond:
3642            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3643
3644        return self.sql(case)
3645
3646    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3648        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3649        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3650        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3651        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3652        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3653
3654    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3655        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3656
3657    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3658        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3659
3660    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3661        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3662        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3663        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3664        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3665        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3666        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3667
3668    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3669        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3670        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3671        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3672
3673    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3675        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3676        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3677
3678    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3679        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3680
3681    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3682        arg = expression.this
3683        if not arg.type:
3684            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3685
3686            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3687
3688        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3689            return self.sql(arg)
3690
3691        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3692        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3693
3694    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3695        this = expression.this
3696        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3697            return self.sql(this)
3698
3699        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3700
3701    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3702        this = expression.this
3703        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3704            return self.sql(this)
3705
3706        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3707
3708    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3709        this = expression.this
3710        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3711
3712        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3713            return self.sql(
3714                exp.cast(
3715                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3716                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3717                )
3718            )
3719
3720        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3721            return self.sql(this)
3722
3723        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3724
3725    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3726        return self.sql(
3727            exp.func(
3728                "DATEDIFF",
3729                expression.this,
3730                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3731                "day",
3732            )
3733        )
3734
3735    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3736        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3737            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3738
3739        unit = expression.text("unit")
3740        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3741            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3742
3743        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3744
3745    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3746        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3747
3748        return self.func(
3749            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3750        )
3751
3752    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3753        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3754            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3755            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3756            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3757            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3758
3759        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3760
3761        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3762        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3763            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3764
3765        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3766
3767    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3768        expression.set(
3769            "expressions",
3770            [
3771                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3772                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3773                else e
3774                for e in expression.expressions
3775            ],
3776        )
3777
3778        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3779
3780    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3781        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3782        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3783
3784        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3785
3786    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3787        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3788        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3789
3790        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3791
3792        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3793        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3794
3795        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3796        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3797
3798        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3799        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3800
3801        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3802        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3803
3804        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3805
3806    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3807    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3808    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3809        to = expression.this
3810        value = expression.expression
3811        style = expression.args.get("style")
3812        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3813        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3814
3815        if not to or not value:
3816            return ""
3817
3818        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3819        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3820            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3821
3822        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3823        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3824
3825        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3826        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3827            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3828
3829            style_value = style.name
3830            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3831            if not converted_style:
3832                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3833
3834            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3835
3836            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3837                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3838            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3839                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3840            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3841                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3842            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3843                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3844
3845        if not transformed:
3846            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3847
3848        return self.sql(transformed)
3849
3850    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3851        this = expression.this
3852        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3853            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3854            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3855
3856        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3857            return f".{this}"
3858
3859        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3860        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3861
3862    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3863        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3864        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3865
3866    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3867        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3868            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3869
3870            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3871
3872        return expression
3873
3874    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3875        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3876            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3877            mods = sorted(
3878                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3879                key=lambda x: 0
3880                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3881                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3882            )
3883
3884            if mods:
3885                mod = mods[0]
3886                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3887                this.meta["inline"] = True
3888                mod.this.replace(this)
3889                return self.sql(expression.this)
3890
3891            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3892
3893            if agg_func:
3894                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3895
3896        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3897
3898    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3899        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3900        if self.pretty:
3901            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3902        return string
3903
3904    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3905        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3906
3907        if expression.expressions:
3908            upper = option.upper()
3909
3910            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3911            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3912
3913            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3914            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3915            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3916            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3917
3918        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3919
3920        if not value:
3921            return option
3922
3923        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3924
3925        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3926
3927    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3928        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3929        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3930            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3931            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3932            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3933        else:
3934            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3935            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3936            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3937
3938        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3939        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3940
3941        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3942        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3943
3944        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3945        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3946
3947        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3948        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3949
3950        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3951
3952    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3954        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3955
3956        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3957        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3958        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3959        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3960
3961        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3962        params = self.expressions(
3963            expression,
3964            key="params",
3965            sep=sep,
3966            new_line=True,
3967            skip_last=True,
3968            skip_first=True,
3969            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3970        )
3971
3972        if params:
3973            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3974                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3975            elif not self.pretty:
3976                params = f" {params}"
3977
3978        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3979
3980    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3981        return ""
3982
3983    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3984        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3985        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3986        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3987        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3988        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3989
3990        if filter_col or retention_period:
3991            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3992
3993        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3994
3995    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3996        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3997    ) -> str:
3998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3999        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4000        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4001        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
4002
4003    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4005        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4006        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
4007
4008    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4009        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
4010
4011    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4013        expr = expression.expression
4014
4015        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4016            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4017            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4018        else:
4019            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4020
4021        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
4022
4023    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4024        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4025            return self.sql(expression.this)
4026
4027        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
4028
4029    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4030        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4031        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4032
4033        if lower and upper:
4034            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4035        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
4036
4037    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4038        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4039        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4040        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4041        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4042        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4043        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4044
4045        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
4046
4047    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4048        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4049
4050        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4051        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4052            fill_pattern = "' '"
4053
4054        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
4055
4056    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4057        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4058        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
4059
4060    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4061        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4062
4063        parent = expression.parent
4064        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4065            parent = parent.parent
4066
4067        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4068            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4069
4070        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4071            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4072
4073        return self.sql(generate_series)
4074
4075    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4076        exprs = expression.expressions
4077        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4078            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4079        else:
4080            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4081
4082        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
578    def __init__(
579        self,
580        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
581        identify: str | bool = False,
582        normalize: bool = False,
583        pad: int = 2,
584        indent: int = 2,
585        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
586        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
587        max_unsupported: int = 3,
588        leading_comma: bool = False,
589        max_text_width: int = 80,
590        comments: bool = True,
591        dialect: DialectType = None,
592    ):
593        import sqlglot
594        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
595
596        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
597        self.identify = identify
598        self.normalize = normalize
599        self.pad = pad
600        self._indent = indent
601        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
602        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
603        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
604        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
605        self.comments = comments
606        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
607
608        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
609        self.normalize_functions = (
610            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
611        )
612
613        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
614        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
615            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
616        )
617        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
618            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
619        )
620
621        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ConnectByRoot'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PivotAny'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED = False
SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS = True
ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN = True
PARSE_JSON_NAME: Optional[str] = 'PARSE_JSON'
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSchemaBindingProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
623    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
624        """
625        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
626
627        Args:
628            expression: The syntax tree.
629            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
630                it is safer to copy.
631
632        Returns:
633            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
634        """
635        if copy:
636            expression = expression.copy()
637
638        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
639
640        self.unsupported_messages = []
641        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
642
643        if self.pretty:
644            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
645
646        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
647            return sql
648
649        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
650            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
651                logger.warning(msg)
652        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
653            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
654
655        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
657    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
658        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
659        if (
660            not expression.parent
661            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
662            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
663        ):
664            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
665
666            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
667
668        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
669            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
670
671            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
672
673        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
675    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
676        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
677            raise UnsupportedError(message)
678        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
680    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
681        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
683    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
684        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
686    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
687        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
688        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
689        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
691    def maybe_comment(
692        self,
693        sql: str,
694        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
695        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
696        separated: bool = False,
697    ) -> str:
698        comments = (
699            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
700            if self.comments
701            else None
702        )
703
704        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
705            return sql
706
707        comments_sql = " ".join(
708            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
709        )
710
711        if not comments_sql:
712            return sql
713
714        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
715
716        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
717            return (
718                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
719                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
720                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
721            )
722
723        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
725    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
726        this_sql = (
727            self.sql(expression)
728            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
729            else self.sql(expression, "this")
730        )
731        if not this_sql:
732            return "()"
733
734        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
735        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
737    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
738        original = self.identify
739        self.identify = False
740        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
741        self.identify = original
742        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
744    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
745        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
746            return name.upper()
747        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
748            return name.lower()
749        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
751    def indent(
752        self,
753        sql: str,
754        level: int = 0,
755        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
756        skip_first: bool = False,
757        skip_last: bool = False,
758    ) -> str:
759        if not self.pretty or not sql:
760            return sql
761
762        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
763        lines = sql.split("\n")
764
765        return "\n".join(
766            (
767                line
768                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
769                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
770            )
771            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
772        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
774    def sql(
775        self,
776        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
777        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
778        comment: bool = True,
779    ) -> str:
780        if not expression:
781            return ""
782
783        if isinstance(expression, str):
784            return expression
785
786        if key:
787            value = expression.args.get(key)
788            if value:
789                return self.sql(value)
790            return ""
791
792        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
793
794        if callable(transform):
795            sql = transform(self, expression)
796        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
797            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
798
799            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
800                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
801            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
802                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
803            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
804                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
805            else:
806                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
807        else:
808            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
809
810        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
812    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
813        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
814        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
815        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
817    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
818        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
819        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
820        options = expression.args.get("options")
821        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
822        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
823        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
824        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
825        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
827    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
828        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
829            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
830        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
831        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
833    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
834        return ".".join(
835            self.sql(part)
836            for part in (
837                expression.args.get("catalog"),
838                expression.args.get("db"),
839                expression.args.get("table"),
840                expression.args.get("this"),
841            )
842            if part
843        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
845    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
846        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
847
848        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
849            join_mark = ""
850            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
851
852        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
854    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
855        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
856        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
857        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
858        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
860    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
861        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
862        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
863        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
864        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
865        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
866        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
867        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
868        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
869
870        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
871            kind = ""
872
873        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
875    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
877        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
878        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
880    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
882        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
883            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
884        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
885            persisted = " PERSISTED"
886        else:
887            persisted = ""
888        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
890    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
891        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
893    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
894        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
895            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
896        else:
897            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
898
899        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
901    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
902        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
903    ) -> str:
904        this = ""
905        if expression.this is not None:
906            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
907            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
908
909        start = expression.args.get("start")
910        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
911        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
912        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
913        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
914        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
915        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
916        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
917        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
918        cycle_sql = ""
919
920        if cycle is not None:
921            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
922            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
923
924        sequence_opts = ""
925        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
926            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
927            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
928
929        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
930        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
931
932        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
934    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
935        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
936    ) -> str:
937        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
938        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
939        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
941    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
942        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
943    ) -> str:
944        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
946    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
947        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
949    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
950        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
952    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
953        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
954        if desc is not None:
955            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
956        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
958    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
959        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
960        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
961        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
962        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
963        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
964        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
965        nulls_sql = " NULLS NOT DISTINCT" if expression.args.get("nulls") else ""
966        return f"UNIQUE{nulls_sql}{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
968    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
969        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 971    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 972        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 973        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 974        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 975
 976        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 977
 978        properties_sql = ""
 979        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 980            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 981        ):
 982            properties_sql = self.sql(
 983                exp.Properties(
 984                    expressions=[
 985                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 986                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 987                    ]
 988                )
 989            )
 990
 991            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 992                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 993            elif not self.pretty:
 994                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 995                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 996
 997        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 998        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 999
1000        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1001        if expression_sql:
1002            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
1003
1004            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
1005                postalias_props_sql = ""
1006                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
1007                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
1008                        exp.Properties(
1009                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
1010                        ),
1011                        wrapped=False,
1012                    )
1013                postalias_props_sql = f" {postalias_props_sql}" if postalias_props_sql else ""
1014                expression_sql = f" AS{postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1015
1016        postindex_props_sql = ""
1017        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1018            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1019                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1020                wrapped=False,
1021                prefix=" ",
1022            )
1023
1024        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1025        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1026        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1027
1028        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1029        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1030
1031        clustered = expression.args.get("clustered")
1032        if clustered is None:
1033            clustered_sql = ""
1034        elif clustered:
1035            clustered_sql = " CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1036        else:
1037            clustered_sql = " NONCLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE"
1038
1039        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1040        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1041            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1042                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1043                sep=" ",
1044                prefix=" ",
1045                wrapped=False,
1046            )
1047
1048        modifiers = "".join((clustered_sql, replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1049
1050        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1051        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1052            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1053                exp.Properties(
1054                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1055                ),
1056                sep=" ",
1057                prefix=" ",
1058                wrapped=False,
1059            )
1060
1061        concurrently = " CONCURRENTLY" if expression.args.get("concurrently") else ""
1062        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1063        no_schema_binding = (
1064            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1065        )
1066
1067        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1068        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1069
1070        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{concurrently}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1071        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1073    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1074        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1075        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1076        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1077        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1078        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1079        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1080        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1081        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1082        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1083        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1084
1085        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1086        if cache is None:
1087            cache_str = ""
1088        elif cache is True:
1089            cache_str = " CACHE"
1090        else:
1091            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1092
1093        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1094        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1095
1096        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1098    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1099        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1100        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1101        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1102        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1104    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1105        style = expression.args.get("style")
1106        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1107        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1109    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1110        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1111        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1113    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1114        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1115        if with_:
1116            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1117        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1119    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1120        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1121        recursive = (
1122            "RECURSIVE "
1123            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1124            else ""
1125        )
1126
1127        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1129    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1130        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1131
1132        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1133        if materialized is False:
1134            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1135        elif materialized:
1136            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1137
1138        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1140    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1141        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1142        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1143        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1144
1145        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1146            columns = ""
1147            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1148
1149        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1150            alias = self._next_name()
1151
1152        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1154    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1155        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1156        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1157            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1158        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1160    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1161        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1162        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1163            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1164        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1166    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1167        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1168        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1169            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1170        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1172    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1173        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1174        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1175
1176        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1177            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1178            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1179        else:
1180            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1181            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1182
1183        if escape:
1184            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1185            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1186        else:
1187            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1188            escape_sql = ""
1189
1190        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1191            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1192
1193        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1195    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1196        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1197        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1199    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1200        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1201        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1202        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1203        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1205    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1206        type_value = expression.this
1207
1208        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1209            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1210        else:
1211            type_sql = (
1212                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1213                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1214                else type_value
1215            )
1216
1217        nested = ""
1218        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1219        values = ""
1220
1221        if interior:
1222            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1223                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1224                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1225                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1226                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1227                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1228            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1229                nested = f" {interior}"
1230            else:
1231                nested = f"({interior})"
1232
1233        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1234        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1235            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1236            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1237        ):
1238            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1239
1240        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1242    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1243        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1244        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1245        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1246        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1248    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1249        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1250        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1251        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1252        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1253        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1254        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1255        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1256        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1257        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1258        if self.RETURNING_END:
1259            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1260        else:
1261            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1262        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1264    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1265        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1266        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1267        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1268        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1269        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1270        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1271        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1272        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1273        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1274        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1275        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1276        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1277        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1279    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1280        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1282    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1283        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1285    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1286        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1287        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1288        count = expression.args.get("count")
1289        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1290        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1291            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1292        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1293        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1295    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1296        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1297            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1298            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1299            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1300
1301        agg = expression.this
1302        agg_arg = agg.this
1303        cond = expression.expression.this
1304        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1305        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1307    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1308        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1309            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1310            return ""
1311
1312        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1314    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1315        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1316        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1317        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1318        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1319        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1320        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1321        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1322        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1323        if include:
1324            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1325        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1326        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1327        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1328        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1329        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1330        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1331
1332        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1334    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1335        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1336        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1337        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1338        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1339        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1340        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1341        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1342
1343        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1344
1345        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1346        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1348    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1349        text = expression.name
1350        lower = text.lower()
1351        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1352        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1353        if (
1354            expression.quoted
1355            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1356            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1357            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1358        ):
1359            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1360        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1362    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1363        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1364        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1365            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1366
1367        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1369    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1370        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1371        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1372            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1373        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1375    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1376        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1377        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1378        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1379        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1380        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1382    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1383        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1384        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1386    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1387        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1389    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1390        root_properties = []
1391        with_properties = []
1392
1393        for p in expression.expressions:
1394            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1395            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1396                with_properties.append(p)
1397            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1398                root_properties.append(p)
1399
1400        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1401        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1402
1403        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1404            with_props = " " + with_props
1405
1406        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1408    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1409        if properties.expressions:
1410            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1411        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1413    def properties(
1414        self,
1415        properties: exp.Properties,
1416        prefix: str = "",
1417        sep: str = ", ",
1418        suffix: str = "",
1419        wrapped: bool = True,
1420    ) -> str:
1421        if properties.expressions:
1422            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1423            if expressions:
1424                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1425                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1426        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1428    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1429        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1431    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1432        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1433        for p in properties.expressions:
1434            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1435            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1436                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1437            else:
1438                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1439
1440        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1442    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1443        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1444            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1445        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1447    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1448        property_cls = expression.__class__
1449        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1450            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1451
1452        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1453        if not property_name:
1454            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1455
1456        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1458    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1459        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1460            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1461            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1462
1463            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1464            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1465                like = f"({like})"
1466
1467            return like
1468
1469        if expression.expressions:
1470            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1471
1472        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1473        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1475    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1476        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1477        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1478        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1480    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1481        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1482        local = expression.args.get("local")
1483        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1484        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1485        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1486        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1487        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1489    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1490        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1491        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1492        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1494    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1495        if expression.args.get("default"):
1496            property = "DEFAULT"
1497        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1498            property = "ON"
1499        else:
1500            property = "OFF"
1501        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1503    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1504        if expression.args.get("no"):
1505            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1506        if expression.args.get("default"):
1507            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1508
1509        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1510        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1512    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1513        default = expression.args.get("default")
1514        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1515        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1516        if default or minimum or maximum:
1517            if default:
1518                prop = "DEFAULT"
1519            elif minimum:
1520                prop = "MINIMUM"
1521            else:
1522                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1523            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1524        units = expression.args.get("units")
1525        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1526        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1528    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1529        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1530        always = expression.args.get("always")
1531        default = expression.args.get("default")
1532        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1533        never = expression.args.get("never")
1534
1535        if autotemp is not None:
1536            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1537        elif always:
1538            prop = "ALWAYS"
1539        elif default:
1540            prop = "DEFAULT"
1541        elif manual:
1542            prop = "MANUAL"
1543        elif never:
1544            prop = "NEVER"
1545        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1547    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1548        no = expression.args.get("no")
1549        no = " NO" if no else ""
1550        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1551        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1552        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1553        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1554        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1556    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1557        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1558            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1559        if expression.this:
1560            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1561            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1562            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1563
1564        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1565        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1566        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1568    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1569        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1570
1571        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1572        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1573            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1574        else:
1575            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1576
1577        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1579    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1580        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1581        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1582        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1583        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1584        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1585        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1586        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1588    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1589        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1590        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1591        statistics_sql = ""
1592        if statistics is not None:
1593            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1594        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1596    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1597        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1598        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1599        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1600        data_consistency = (
1601            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1602        )
1603        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1604        retention_period = (
1605            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1606        )
1607
1608        if this:
1609            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1610        else:
1611            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1612
1613        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1614
1615        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1617    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1618        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1619        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1620
1621        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1622            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1623        else:
1624            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1625
1626        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1627        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1628        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1629        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1630        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1631        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1632        if is_function:
1633            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1634        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1635
1636        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1637        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1638        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1639        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1640        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1641        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1642        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1643        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1644
1645        if self.RETURNING_END:
1646            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1647        else:
1648            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1649
1650        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1651        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1653    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1654        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1656    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1657        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1659    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1660        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1662    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1663        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1664        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1665        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1666        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1667        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1669    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1670        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1672    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1673        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1675    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1676        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1677
1678        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1679        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1680
1681        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1682        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1683        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1684
1685        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1686        if expressions:
1687            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1688            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1689
1690        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1692    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1693        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1695    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1696        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1697        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1698        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1699        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1700        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1701        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1702        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1703        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1704        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1705        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1706        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1707        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1708        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1710    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1711        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1713    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1714        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1715        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1716        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1717        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1719    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1720        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1721        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1722        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1723        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1725    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1726        return ".".join(
1727            self.sql(part)
1728            for part in (
1729                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1730                expression.args.get("db"),
1731                expression.args.get("this"),
1732            )
1733            if part is not None
1734        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1736    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1737        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1738        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1739        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1740        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1741        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1742        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1743        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1744        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1745        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1746        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1747        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
1748        joins = self.indent(
1749            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1750        )
1751        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1752
1753        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1754        if file_format:
1755            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1756            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1757            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1758
1759        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1760        if ordinality:
1761            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1762            alias = ""
1763
1764        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1765        if when:
1766            table = f"{table} {when}"
1767
1768        changes = self.sql(expression, "changes")
1769        changes = f" {changes}" if changes else ""
1770
1771        rows_from = self.expressions(expression, key="rows_from")
1772        if rows_from:
1773            table = f"ROWS FROM {self.wrap(rows_from)}"
1774
1775        return f"{only}{table}{changes}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1777    def tablesample_sql(
1778        self,
1779        expression: exp.TableSample,
1780        sep: str = " AS ",
1781        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1782    ) -> str:
1783        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1784            table = expression.this.copy()
1785            table.set("alias", None)
1786            this = self.sql(table)
1787            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1788        else:
1789            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1790            alias = ""
1791
1792        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1793        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1794        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1795        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1796        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1797        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1798        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1799        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1800        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1801
1802        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1803        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1804            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1805
1806        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1807        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1808            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1809
1810        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1811        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1812            expr = f"({expr})"
1813
1814        return (
1815            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1816        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1818    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1819        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1820
1821        if expression.this:
1822            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1823            if not expressions:
1824                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1825
1826            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1827            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1828            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1829            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1830            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1831
1832        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1833        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1834        direction = self.seg("UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT")
1835
1836        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1837        if field and isinstance(expression.args.get("field"), exp.PivotAny):
1838            field = f"IN ({field})"
1839
1840        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1841        if include_nulls is not None:
1842            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1843        else:
1844            nulls = ""
1845
1846        default_on_null = self.sql(expression, "default_on_null")
1847        default_on_null = f" DEFAULT ON NULL ({default_on_null})" if default_on_null else ""
1848        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}{default_on_null}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1850    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1851        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1852        kind = expression.text("kind")
1853        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1854        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1856    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1857        return f"({self.expressions(expression, dynamic=True, new_line=True, skip_first=True, skip_last=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1859    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1860        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1861        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1862        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1863        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1864        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1865        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1866        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1867        if self.RETURNING_END:
1868            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1869        else:
1870            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1871        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1872        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1874    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1875        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1876
1877        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1878        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1879            args = self.expressions(expression)
1880            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1881            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1882            values = (
1883                f"({values})"
1884                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1885                else values
1886            )
1887            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1888
1889        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1890        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1891        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1892
1893        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1894
1895        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1896            row = tup.expressions
1897
1898            if i == 0 and column_names:
1899                row = [
1900                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1901                ]
1902
1903            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1904
1905        if self.pretty:
1906            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1907            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1908            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1909            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1910            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1911
1912        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1913        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1914        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1916    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1917        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1919    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1920        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1921        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1922        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1924    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1925        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1927    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1928        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1929        if group_by_all is True:
1930            modifier = " ALL"
1931        elif group_by_all is False:
1932            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1933        else:
1934            modifier = ""
1935
1936        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1937
1938        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1939        grouping_sets = (
1940            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1941        )
1942
1943        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1944        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1945            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1946        else:
1947            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1948            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1949
1950        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1951        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1952            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1953        else:
1954            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1955            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1956
1957        groupings = csv(
1958            grouping_sets,
1959            cube_sql,
1960            rollup_sql,
1961            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1962            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1963        )
1964
1965        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1966            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1967
1968        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1970    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1971        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1972        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1974    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1975        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1976        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1977        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1978        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1979        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1980        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1982    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1983        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1985    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1986        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1987            side = None
1988        else:
1989            side = expression.side
1990
1991        op_sql = " ".join(
1992            op
1993            for op in (
1994                expression.method,
1995                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1996                side,
1997                expression.kind,
1998                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1999            )
2000            if op
2001        )
2002        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
2003        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
2004        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
2005        using = expression.args.get("using")
2006
2007        if not on_sql and using:
2008            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
2009
2010        this = expression.this
2011        this_sql = self.sql(this)
2012
2013        if on_sql:
2014            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
2015            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
2016            if using:
2017                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
2018            else:
2019                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
2020        elif not op_sql:
2021            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
2022                return f" {this_sql}"
2023
2024            return f", {this_sql}"
2025
2026        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
2027            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
2028
2029        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
2031    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
2032        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2033        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2034        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2036    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2037        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2038
2039        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2040        if cross_apply is True:
2041            op = "INNER JOIN "
2042        elif cross_apply is False:
2043            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2044        else:
2045            op = ""
2046
2047        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2049    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2050        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2051
2052        if expression.args.get("view"):
2053            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2054            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2055            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2056            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2057            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2058            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2059
2060        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2061        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2062        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2064    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2065        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2066
2067        args = [
2068            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2069            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2070            if e
2071        ]
2072
2073        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2074        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2075        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2076        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2077
2078        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2080    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2082        value = expression.expression
2083        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2084        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2085        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2086        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2088    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2089        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2090        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2091        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2092        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2093        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2094        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2095        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2096        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2098    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2099        expressions = (
2100            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2101        )
2102        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2103        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2105    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2106        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2108    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2109        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2110            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2111            return ""
2112
2113        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2114        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2115        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2116        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2117
2118        if wait is not None:
2119            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2120                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2121            else:
2122                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2123
2124        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2126    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2127        text = expression.this or ""
2128        if expression.is_string:
2129            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2130        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2132    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2133        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2134            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2135            text = "".join(
2136                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2137            )
2138
2139        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2140            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2141        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2143    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2144        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2145        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2146        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2147        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2148        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2149        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2150        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2151        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2152        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2153        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2154        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2156    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2157        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2159    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2160        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2162    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2163        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2164        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2165        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2166        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2167        interpolated_values = [
2168            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2169            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2170        ]
2171        interpolate = (
2172            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2173        )
2174        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2176    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2177        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2178        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2179        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2180        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2181        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2182        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2183        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2185    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2186        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2188    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2189        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2191    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2192        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2194    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2195        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2196        asc = not desc
2197
2198        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2199        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2200        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2201        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2202        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2203
2204        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2205
2206        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2207        nulls_sort_change = ""
2208        if nulls_first and (
2209            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2210        ):
2211            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2212        elif (
2213            nulls_last
2214            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2215            and not nulls_are_last
2216        ):
2217            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2218
2219        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2220        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2221            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2222            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2223                self.unsupported(
2224                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2225                )
2226                nulls_sort_change = ""
2227            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2228                if expression.this.is_int:
2229                    self.unsupported(
2230                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2231                    )
2232                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2233                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2234                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2235                nulls_sort_change = ""
2236
2237        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2238        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2239
2240        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2242    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2243        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2244        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2245
2246        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2247
2248        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2250    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2251        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2252        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2253        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2254        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2255        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2256        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2257        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2258        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2259        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2260        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2261        definition_sqls = [
2262            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2263            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2264        ]
2265        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2266        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2267        body = "".join(
2268            (
2269                partition,
2270                order,
2271                measures,
2272                rows,
2273                after,
2274                pattern,
2275                define,
2276            )
2277        )
2278        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2279        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2280        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2282    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2283        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2284
2285        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2286            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2287        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2288            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2289
2290        return csv(
2291            *sqls,
2292            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2293            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2294            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2295            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2296            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2297            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2298            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2299            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2300            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2301            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2302            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2303            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2304            self.options_modifier(expression),
2305            sep="",
2306        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2308    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2309        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2310        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2312    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2313        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2315    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2316        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2317    ) -> t.List[str]:
2318        return [
2319            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2320            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2321        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2323    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2324        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2325        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2326        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2328    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2329        into = expression.args.get("into")
2330        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2331            into.pop()
2332
2333        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2334        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2335        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2336        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2337
2338        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2339        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2340            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2341            limit.pop()
2342        else:
2343            top = ""
2344
2345        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2346
2347        if kind:
2348            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2349                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2350            else:
2351                if kind == "STRUCT":
2352                    expressions = self.expressions(
2353                        sqls=[
2354                            self.sql(
2355                                exp.Struct(
2356                                    expressions=[
2357                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2358                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2359                                        else e
2360                                        for e in expression.expressions
2361                                    ]
2362                                )
2363                            )
2364                        ]
2365                    )
2366                kind = ""
2367
2368        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2369        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2370        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2371        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2372        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2373            expression,
2374            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2375            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2376            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2377        )
2378
2379        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2380
2381        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2382            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2383                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2384            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2385                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2386            else:
2387                table_kind = ""
2388            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2389
2390        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2392    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2393        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2394        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2395        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2397    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2398        if expression.expressions:
2399            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2400        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2402    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2403        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2404        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2405        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2406        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2407        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2408        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2409        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2411    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2412        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2413        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2415    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2416        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2417        kind = expression.text("kind")
2418        if kind:
2419            kind = f"{kind}."
2420        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2422    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2423        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2425    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2426        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2427        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2428        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep="", flat=True)
2429        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2430        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2432    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2433        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2434        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2436    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2437        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2438            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2439            order = expression.args.get("order")
2440
2441            if limit or order:
2442                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2443
2444                if limit:
2445                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2446                if order:
2447                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2448                return self.sql(select)
2449
2450        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2451        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2452
2453        while stack:
2454            node = stack.pop()
2455
2456            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2457                stack.append(node.expression)
2458                stack.append(
2459                    self.maybe_comment(
2460                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2461                        comments=node.comments,
2462                        separated=True,
2463                    )
2464                )
2465                stack.append(node.this)
2466            else:
2467                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2468
2469        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2470        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2471        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2473    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2474        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2476    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2477        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2478        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2479        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2480        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2482    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2483        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2484
2485        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2486        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2487
2488        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2489            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2490                alias.append("columns", offset)
2491
2492        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2493            columns = alias.columns
2494            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2495        else:
2496            alias = self.sql(alias)
2497
2498        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2499        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2500            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2501        else:
2502            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2503                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2504            elif offset:
2505                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2506            else:
2507                suffix = alias
2508
2509        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2511    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2512        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2514    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2515        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2516        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2518    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2519        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2520        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2521        order = expression.args.get("order")
2522        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2523        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2524        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2525        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2526
2527        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2528
2529        first = expression.args.get("first")
2530        if first is None:
2531            first = ""
2532        else:
2533            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2534
2535        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2536            return f"{this} {alias}"
2537
2538        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2539        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2541    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2542        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2543        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2545    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2546        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2547        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2548        end = (
2549            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2550            or "CURRENT ROW"
2551        )
2552        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2554    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2555        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2556        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2557        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2559    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2560        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2561        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2562        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2563        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2565    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2566        return apply_index_offset(
2567            expression.this,
2568            expression.expressions,
2569            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2570        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2572    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2573        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2574        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2575        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2577    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2578        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2580    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2582        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2583            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2584                this = self.wrap(this)
2585            return f"ANY{this}"
2586        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2588    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2589        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2591    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2592        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2593        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2594
2595        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2596            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2597            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2598
2599        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2600
2601        if default:
2602            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2603
2604        statements.append("END")
2605
2606        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2607            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2608
2609        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2611    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2612        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2613        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2614        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2616    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2617        order = expression.args.get("order")
2618        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2619        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2621    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2622        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2623        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2624        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2626    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2627        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2628
2629        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2630            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2631        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2632            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2633        else:
2634            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2636    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2637        args = expression.expressions
2638        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2639            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2640
2641        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2642            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2643
2644        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2645            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2646
2647        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2649    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2650        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2651
2652        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2653        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2654            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2655
2656        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2658    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2659        return self.func(
2660            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2661        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2663    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2664        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2665        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2667    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2668        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2669        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2670        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2671        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2672        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2673        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2674        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2675        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2677    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2678        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2679        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2680        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2681        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2683    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2684        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2686    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2687        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2688        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2689        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2691    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2692        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2694    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2695        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2696        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2697            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2698
2699        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2701    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2702        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2703            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2704            if not callable(transform):
2705                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2706                return ""
2707
2708            return transform(self, expression)
2709
2710        if isinstance(expression, int):
2711            return str(expression)
2712
2713        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2714            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2715            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2716        else:
2717            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2718            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2719
2720        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2722    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2723        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2725    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2726        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2727        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2728
2729        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2730        if unique_keys is not None:
2731            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2732        else:
2733            unique_keys = ""
2734
2735        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2736        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2737        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2738        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2739
2740        return self.func(
2741            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2742            *expression.expressions,
2743            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2744        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2746    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2747        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2749    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2750        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2751        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2752        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2753        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2754        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2755        return self.func(
2756            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2757        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2759    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2762        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2763        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2764        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2765        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2766        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2767        return self.func(
2768            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2769            this,
2770            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2771        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2773    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2774        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2775        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2776        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2777
2778        if nested_schema:
2779            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2780
2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2782        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2783        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2784        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2786    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2787        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2789    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2790        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2791        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2792        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2793        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2794        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2795        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2796        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2797        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2798        return self.func(
2799            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2800        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2802    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2803        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2804        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2805        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2806        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2807        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2808        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2810    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2811        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2812        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2813        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2814        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2815        with_ = (
2816            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2817            if expressions
2818            else ""
2819        )
2820        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2822    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2823        query = expression.args.get("query")
2824        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2825        field = expression.args.get("field")
2826        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2827
2828        if query:
2829            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2830        elif unnest:
2831            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2832        elif field:
2833            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2834        else:
2835            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2836
2837        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2839    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2840        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2842    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2843        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2844        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2845            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2846        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2847
2848        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2849            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2850            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2851
2852        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2853        if this:
2854            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2855            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2856
2857        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2859    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2860        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2862    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2863        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2864        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2865        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2866        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2867        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2868        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2870    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2871        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2873    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2874        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2875        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2877    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2878        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2879        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2880        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2881        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2883    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2884        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2886    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2887        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2888        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2889        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2891    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2892        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2893        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2894
2895        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2896            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2897        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2898            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2899
2900        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2902    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2903        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2905    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2906        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2907        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2908        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2910    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2911        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2912        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2913        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2915    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2916        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2917        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2918        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2920    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2921        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2923    def and_sql(
2924        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2925    ) -> str:
2926        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2928    def or_sql(
2929        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2930    ) -> str:
2931        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2933    def xor_sql(
2934        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2935    ) -> str:
2936        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2938    def connector_sql(
2939        self,
2940        expression: exp.Connector,
2941        op: str,
2942        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2943    ) -> str:
2944        if stack is not None:
2945            if expression.expressions:
2946                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2947            else:
2948                stack.append(expression.right)
2949                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2950                    for comment in expression.comments:
2951                        if comment:
2952                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2953                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2954            return op
2955
2956        stack = [expression]
2957        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2958        ops = set()
2959
2960        while stack:
2961            node = stack.pop()
2962            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2963                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2964            else:
2965                sql = self.sql(node)
2966                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2967                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2968                else:
2969                    sqls.append(sql)
2970
2971        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2972        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2974    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2975        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2977    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2978        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2980    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2981        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2983    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2984        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2986    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2987        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2989    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2990        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2992    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2993        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2994        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2995        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2996        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2997        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2998        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2999        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
3001    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
3002        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
3003        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
3005    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
3006        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
3007            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3008        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
3010    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
3011        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
3013    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
3014        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3015        kind = expression.args["kind"]
3016        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
3017        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3018        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3019        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3021    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
3022        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3023        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
3024        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
3025        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
3026        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3027        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3028        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3029        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3030        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3032    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3033        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3034        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3035        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3036        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3037
3038        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3039            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3040
3041        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3043    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3044        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3046    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3047        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3048        if chain is not None:
3049            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3050
3051        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3053    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3054        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3055        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3056        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3058    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3059        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3060
3061        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3062        if dtype:
3063            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3064            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3065            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3066            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3067            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3068
3069        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3070        if default:
3071            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3072
3073        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3074        if comment:
3075            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3076
3077        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3078        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3079
3080        if not drop and not allow_null:
3081            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3082
3083        if allow_null is not None:
3084            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3085            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3086
3087        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3089    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3090        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3091        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3092            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3093        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3095    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3096        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3097        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3098        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3099        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3100        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3102    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3103        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3104            # Remove db from tables
3105            expression = expression.transform(
3106                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3107            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3108        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3109        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3111    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3112        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3113        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3114        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3115        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3117    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3118        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3119        return f"SET {exprs}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3121    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3122        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3123
3124        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3125            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3126        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3127            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3128        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3129            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3130        else:
3131            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3132
3133        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3134        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3135        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3136        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3137        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3138        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3139        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3141    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3142        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3143            return self.expressions(
3144                expression,
3145                key="actions",
3146                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3147                skip_first=True,
3148            )
3149        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3151    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3152        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3153        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3154        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3156    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3157        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3159    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3160        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3161
3162        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3163            case = exp.case()
3164            for arg in expression.expressions:
3165                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3166            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3167
3168        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3169
3170        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3171        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3172        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3174    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3175        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3177    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3178        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3180    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3181        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3182        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3183        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3184        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3186    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3187        return self.sql(
3188            exp.Cast(
3189                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3190                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3191            )
3192        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3194    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3195        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3196            return self.func(
3197                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3198            )
3199        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3201    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3202        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3203
3204        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3205            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3206
3207        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3208            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3209                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3210
3211        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3212            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3213                return self.sql(
3214                    exp.cast(
3215                        l / r,
3216                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3217                    )
3218                )
3219
3220        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3222    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3223        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3225    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3226        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3228    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3229        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3231    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3232        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3234    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3235        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3237    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3240    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3241        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3243    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3246    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3249    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3252    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3255    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3256        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3257            return self.sql(
3258                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3259            )
3260        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3262    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3263        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3265    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3266        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3268    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3269        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3271    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3272        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3274    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3275        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3277    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3278        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3280    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3281        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3283    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3284        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3286    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3287        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3289    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3290        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3292    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3293        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3295    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3296        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3298    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3299        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3301    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3302        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3303            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3304            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3305
3306        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3308    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3309        this = expression.this
3310        expr = expression.expression
3311
3312        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3313            this, expr = expr, this
3314        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3315            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3316                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3317
3318            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3319
3320        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3322    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3323        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3324        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3325        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3326        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3327        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3329    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3330        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3331        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3333    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3334        args = []
3335
3336        for key in expression.arg_types:
3337            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3338
3339            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3340                for value in arg_value:
3341                    args.append(value)
3342            elif arg_value is not None:
3343                args.append(arg_value)
3344
3345        if self.normalize_functions:
3346            name = expression.sql_name()
3347        else:
3348            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3349
3350        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3352    def func(
3353        self,
3354        name: str,
3355        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3356        prefix: str = "(",
3357        suffix: str = ")",
3358    ) -> str:
3359        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3361    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3362        arg_sqls = tuple(
3363            self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None and not isinstance(arg, bool)
3364        )
3365        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3366            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3367        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3369    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3370        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3372    def format_time(
3373        self,
3374        expression: exp.Expression,
3375        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3376        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3377    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3378        return format_time(
3379            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3380            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3381            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3382        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3384    def expressions(
3385        self,
3386        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3387        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3388        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3389        flat: bool = False,
3390        indent: bool = True,
3391        skip_first: bool = False,
3392        skip_last: bool = False,
3393        sep: str = ", ",
3394        prefix: str = "",
3395        dynamic: bool = False,
3396        new_line: bool = False,
3397    ) -> str:
3398        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3399
3400        if not expressions:
3401            return ""
3402
3403        if flat:
3404            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3405
3406        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3407        result_sqls = []
3408
3409        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3410            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3411            if not sql:
3412                continue
3413
3414            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3415
3416            if self.pretty:
3417                if self.leading_comma:
3418                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3419                else:
3420                    result_sqls.append(
3421                        f"{prefix}{sql}{(sep.rstrip() if comments else sep) if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3422                    )
3423            else:
3424                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3425
3426        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3427            if new_line:
3428                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3429                result_sqls.append("")
3430            result_sql = "\n".join(s.rstrip() for s in result_sqls)
3431        else:
3432            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3433        return (
3434            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3435            if indent
3436            else result_sql
3437        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3439    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3440        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3441        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3442        if flat:
3443            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3444        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3446    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3447        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3448        if not property_name:
3449            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3450        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3452    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3453        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3455    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3456        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3458    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3459        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3460        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3461        expressions = (
3462            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3463        )
3464        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3466    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3467        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3468        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3469        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3471    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3472        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3474    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3475        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3476        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3477        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3478        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3479
3480        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3481        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3482            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3483            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3484            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3485            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3486        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3487            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3488                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3489            else:
3490                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3491        else:
3492            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3493        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3495    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3496        table = expression.this
3497        table_alias = ""
3498
3499        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3500        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3501            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3502            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3503
3504        this = self.sql(table)
3505        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3506        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3507        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3508        sep = self.sep()
3509
3510        return self.prepend_ctes(
3511            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3512        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3514    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3515        if expression.args.get("format"):
3516            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3517
3518        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3520    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3521        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3522            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3523            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3524
3525        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3526        if not fmt:
3527            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3528            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3529
3530        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3532    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3534        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3535        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3536        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3537        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3539    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3540        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3541        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3542        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3543        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3545    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3546        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3548    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3549        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3551    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3552        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3553        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3554        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3555        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3556        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3558    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3559        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3560        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3561
3562        if having:
3563            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3564
3565        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3567    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3568        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3569        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3570        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3571        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3572        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3573        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3574        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3575        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3576        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3577        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3578        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3579        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3580        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3582    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3583        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3584        if key_block_size:
3585            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3586
3587        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3588        if using:
3589            return f"USING {using}"
3590
3591        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3592        if parser:
3593            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3594
3595        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3596        if comment:
3597            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3598
3599        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3600        if visible is not None:
3601            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3602
3603        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3604        if engine_attr:
3605            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3606
3607        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3608        if secondary_engine_attr:
3609            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3610
3611        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3612        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3614    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3615        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3616        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3618    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3619        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3620        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3622        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3623        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3624        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3625        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3626        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3627        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3628        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3629        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3631    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3632        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3633            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3634
3635        case = exp.Case().when(
3636            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3637            expression.args["true"],
3638            copy=False,
3639        )
3640        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3641        if else_cond:
3642            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3643
3644        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3646    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3648        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3649        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3650        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3651        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3652        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3654    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3655        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3657    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3658        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3660    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3661        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3662        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3663        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3664        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3665        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3666        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3668    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3669        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3670        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3671        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3673    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3674        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3675        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3676        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3678    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3679        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3681    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3682        arg = expression.this
3683        if not arg.type:
3684            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3685
3686            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3687
3688        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3689            return self.sql(arg)
3690
3691        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3692        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3694    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3695        this = expression.this
3696        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3697            return self.sql(this)
3698
3699        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3701    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3702        this = expression.this
3703        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3704            return self.sql(this)
3705
3706        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3708    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3709        this = expression.this
3710        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3711
3712        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3713            return self.sql(
3714                exp.cast(
3715                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3716                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3717                )
3718            )
3719
3720        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3721            return self.sql(this)
3722
3723        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3725    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3726        return self.sql(
3727            exp.func(
3728                "DATEDIFF",
3729                expression.this,
3730                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3731                "day",
3732            )
3733        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3735    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3736        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3737            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3738
3739        unit = expression.text("unit")
3740        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3741            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3742
3743        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3745    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3746        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3747
3748        return self.func(
3749            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3750        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3752    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3753        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3754            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3755            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3756            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3757            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3758
3759        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3760
3761        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3762        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3763            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3764
3765        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3767    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3768        expression.set(
3769            "expressions",
3770            [
3771                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3772                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3773                else e
3774                for e in expression.expressions
3775            ],
3776        )
3777
3778        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3780    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3781        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3782        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3783
3784        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3786    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3787        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3788        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3789
3790        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3791
3792        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3793        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3794
3795        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3796        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3797
3798        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3799        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3800
3801        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3802        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3803
3804        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3808    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3809        to = expression.this
3810        value = expression.expression
3811        style = expression.args.get("style")
3812        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3813        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3814
3815        if not to or not value:
3816            return ""
3817
3818        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3819        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3820            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3821
3822        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3823        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3824
3825        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3826        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3827            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3828
3829            style_value = style.name
3830            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3831            if not converted_style:
3832                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3833
3834            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3835
3836            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3837                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3838            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3839                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3840            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3841                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3842            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3843                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3844
3845        if not transformed:
3846            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3847
3848        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3904    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3905        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3906
3907        if expression.expressions:
3908            upper = option.upper()
3909
3910            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3911            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3912
3913            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3914            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3915            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3916            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3917
3918        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3919
3920        if not value:
3921            return option
3922
3923        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3924
3925        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3927    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3928        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3929        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3930            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3931            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3932            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3933        else:
3934            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3935            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3936            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3937
3938        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3939        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3940
3941        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3942        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3943
3944        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3945        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3946
3947        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3948        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3949
3950        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3952    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3953        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3954        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3955
3956        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3957        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3958        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3959        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3960
3961        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3962        params = self.expressions(
3963            expression,
3964            key="params",
3965            sep=sep,
3966            new_line=True,
3967            skip_last=True,
3968            skip_first=True,
3969            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3970        )
3971
3972        if params:
3973            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3974                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3975            elif not self.pretty:
3976                params = f" {params}"
3977
3978        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3980    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3981        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3983    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3984        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3985        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3986        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3987        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3988        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3989
3990        if filter_col or retention_period:
3991            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3992
3993        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
3995    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3996        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3997    ) -> str:
3998        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3999        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
4000        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
4001        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
4003    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
4004        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4005        this = f"TABLE {this}"
4006        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4008    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
4009        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4011    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
4012        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
4013        expr = expression.expression
4014
4015        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
4016            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
4017            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
4018        else:
4019            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
4020
4021        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
def parsejson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ParseJSON) -> str:
4023    def parsejson_sql(self, expression: exp.ParseJSON) -> str:
4024        if self.PARSE_JSON_NAME is None:
4025            return self.sql(expression.this)
4026
4027        return self.func(self.PARSE_JSON_NAME, expression.this, expression.expression)
def rand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rand) -> str:
4029    def rand_sql(self, expression: exp.Rand) -> str:
4030        lower = self.sql(expression, "lower")
4031        upper = self.sql(expression, "upper")
4032
4033        if lower and upper:
4034            return f"({upper} - {lower}) * {self.func('RAND', expression.this)} + {lower}"
4035        return self.func("RAND", expression.this)
def changes_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Changes) -> str:
4037    def changes_sql(self, expression: exp.Changes) -> str:
4038        information = self.sql(expression, "information")
4039        information = f"INFORMATION => {information}"
4040        at_before = self.sql(expression, "at_before")
4041        at_before = f"{self.seg('')}{at_before}" if at_before else ""
4042        end = self.sql(expression, "end")
4043        end = f"{self.seg('')}{end}" if end else ""
4044
4045        return f"CHANGES ({information}){at_before}{end}"
def pad_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pad) -> str:
4047    def pad_sql(self, expression: exp.Pad) -> str:
4048        prefix = "L" if expression.args.get("is_left") else "R"
4049
4050        fill_pattern = self.sql(expression, "fill_pattern") or None
4051        if not fill_pattern and self.PAD_FILL_PATTERN_IS_REQUIRED:
4052            fill_pattern = "' '"
4053
4054        return self.func(f"{prefix}PAD", expression.this, expression.expression, fill_pattern)
def summarize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Summarize) -> str:
4056    def summarize_sql(self, expression: exp.Summarize) -> str:
4057        table = " TABLE" if expression.args.get("table") else ""
4058        return f"SUMMARIZE{table} {self.sql(expression.this)}"
def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4060    def explodinggenerateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.ExplodingGenerateSeries) -> str:
4061        generate_series = exp.GenerateSeries(**expression.args)
4062
4063        parent = expression.parent
4064        if isinstance(parent, (exp.Alias, exp.TableAlias)):
4065            parent = parent.parent
4066
4067        if self.SUPPORTS_EXPLODING_PROJECTIONS and not isinstance(parent, (exp.Table, exp.Unnest)):
4068            return self.sql(exp.Unnest(expressions=[generate_series]))
4069
4070        if isinstance(parent, exp.Select):
4071            self.unsupported("GenerateSeries projection unnesting is not supported.")
4072
4073        return self.sql(generate_series)
def arrayconcat_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayConcat, name: str = 'ARRAY_CONCAT') -> str:
4075    def arrayconcat_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayConcat, name: str = "ARRAY_CONCAT") -> str:
4076        exprs = expression.expressions
4077        if not self.ARRAY_CONCAT_IS_VAR_LEN:
4078            rhs = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.ArrayConcat(this=x, expressions=[y]), exprs)
4079        else:
4080            rhs = self.expressions(expression)
4081
4082        return self.func(name, expression.this, rhs)